Ayurveda the divine science of life -6

Ayurveda the divine science of life

Chapter 6

PHARMACOLOGY AND

PHARMACY

PART 1: Theory and practice of A

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a dravya is dependent upon the ‘purpose’ (artha) and

‘rationale’ (yukti) of its usage (Sharma 1976). When

viewed as a singular phenomenon, a dravya has no

inherent quality: it is the perceptive process, viz. the five

senses and the mental impressions that are formed,

which give rise to gun. a. A¯yurveda designates a dravya

as strictly paabautika or ‘formed of the elements’,

and is devoid of atma (‘consciousness’) and therefore

insentient (Sharma 1976). Thus it is the conscious usage

of a substance that makes a dravya.

Dravyas are grouped in several ways depending

upon the source within the extant literature of

A¯

yurveda, but both Sus´ruta and Caraka group

dravyas according to therapeutic action. Caraka enumerates

50 groups, each group containing 10 herbs

named according to the general action of that

group, such as ‘analgesics’ (vedanaｯsthapaｯna),

‘diuretics’ (muｯtravirecanıｯya) and ‘antihelminthics’

(kr. mighna). Sus´ruta categorises each therapeutic

group with the name of a notable representative of

that group, an example being the pippalyaｯdi group,

the suffix ‘aｯdi’ meaning ‘etcetera’, with the herb

Pippalıｯ (Piper longum) being representative. Sus´ruta

also provides therapeutic indications for each of these

groups, the dravyas within the pippalyaｯdi group, for

example, are indicated in vaｯta and kapha disorders,

respiratory ailments, anorexia, poor digestion, flatulence

and tumours.

Other methods of dravya classification include

whether its activity ‘decreases’ (dos.aprasｴamana),

‘increases’ (dos.apraduｯs.an. a) or ‘balances’ (svasthahita)

a specific dos.a, or whether the dravya can

be used to ‘pacify’ an aggravated dos.a (sｴamana) or

to expel an aggravated dos.a by means of ‘purificatory’

methods (sｴodhana), e.g. paa karma.

Dravyas can also be classified according to the predominance

of any one of the mahaｯbhuｯ tas, illustrated

in Table 6.1.

6.3 Rasa: THE SIX TASTES

The simplest method by which a dravya can be

analysed is through the tongue (and oral cavity), by

noticing the specific taste sensations called rasa. In

itself rasa does not provide any definite information

but gives possible indications of a medicament’s composition,

character, property and pharmacological

effect. Rasa also has several other meanings in

A¯

yurveda, being another name for mercury (Hg), the

expressed juice of a plant, and the product of digestion

that circulates within the dhaｯtus.

There are six rasas in Aｯyurveda, each generated by

a specific combination of two different mahaｯbhuｯ tas.

They are as follows:

Mahaｯbhuｯta Jｯna indriyaｯs Rasa Gun.as Karma

Pr. thvıｯ Gandhaｯ (smell) Madhura, slightly Guru, khara kat.hin.a, Condensing (anabolic),

kasｴaｯya manda, sthira, downward-moving

saｯra, sthuｯla (e.g. purgation)

Ap Rasa (taste) Madhura, slightly kasｴaｯya, Snigdha, sｴita, manda, Moistening, binding,

lavan.

a guru, drava, mr.du, oleation, pleasing

picchila

Tejas Ruｯpa (vision) Kat.u, slightly amla, Us.n.

a, tiks.n.

a, suｯks.

ma, Metabolic, digesting,

lavan.

a laghu, visｴada illuminating, tearing,

upward movement

(e.g. emesis)

Vaｯyu Sparsｴa (touch) Kasｴaｯya, slightly tikta Suｯks.

ma, khara, sｴita, Drying, emaciating,

laghu, ruｯks.

a, visｴada roughening, mobility

Aｯ

kaｯsｴa Sｴabda (sound) Unmanifest Sｴlaks.na, suｯks.

ma, Softening, lightening,

mr. du, visｴada emptying

TABLE 6.1 The mahaｯbhuｯta dravyas (Sharma 1976).

Pharmacology and pharmacy 65

1. Madhura (‘sweet’): composed of pr. thvıｯ and

ap

2. Amla (‘sour’): composed of ap and tejas

3. Lavan.

a (‘salty’): composed of pr. thvıｯ and tejas

4. Kat.

u (‘pungent’): composed of tejas and

vaｯyu

5. Tikta (‘bitter’): composed of aｯkaｯsｴa and vaｯyu

6. Kasｴaｯya (‘astringent’): composed of pr. thvıｯ and

vaｯyu.

Knowing that each rasa is composed of a particular

combination of the mahaｯbhuｯ tas is a process of inference,

taking into account the particular qualities that

each taste exhibits. Every dravya contains all rasas

because each thing contains a combination of all the

mahaｯbhuｯ tas. It is the predominance, however, of one

and/or another mahaｯbhuｯ ta in a given substance that

explains rasa. The rasas that are difficult to ascertain,

or tasted secondarily, are called anurasas. Typically, an

anurasa adds to the overall activity of the dravya, but

is weaker than the primary rasa(s). The classification of

rasa is not static, however, because changes that occur

to the dravya over time, including processing and storage,

may alter the original rasa, e.g. an ethanol extract

(tincture) will add kat.u rasa to the overall rasa of the

crude dravya.

The characteristics and qualities of rasa are best

understood in context with the gun. as. A rasa does

not have any inherent quality because it is the senseobject

of the tongue. However, a gun. a can be detected

by rasa because the gun. as are projected from the

paabautik (‘elemental’) composition of the

dravya itself. Using the upakarmas of us.n.

a-sｴita,

guru-laghu and ruｯks.

a-snigdha, each rasa can be

seen to exhibit a specific range of activities:

1. Madhura (‘sweet’) is snigdha (‘greasy’), followed

by ssｴita (‘cold’) and then guru (‘heavy’)

2. Amla (‘sour’) is us.n.

a (‘hot’), followed by snigdha

(‘greasy’) and then laghu (‘light’)

3. Lavan.

a (‘salty’) is guru (‘heavy’), followed by

us.n.

a (‘hot’) and then snigdha (‘greasy’)

4. Kat.

u (‘pungent’) is us.n.

a (‘hot’), followed by

ruｯ ks.a (‘dry’) and then laghu (‘light’)

5. Tikta (‘bitter’) is ssｴita (‘cold’), followed by ruｯks.

a

(‘dry’) and then laghu (‘light’)

6. Kasｴaｯya (‘astringent’) is ruｯks.

a (‘dry’), followed

by sｴita (‘cold’) and then guru (‘heavy’).

6.4 ACTION OF THE rasas UPON

THE dos. as

Each rasa has a specific activity upon the dos.as,

dhaｯtus and agni.

Madhura rasa (sweet)

Dravyas or foods with a predominance of madhura

rasa increase the qualities of guru and snigdha in

the body due to the dominating influence of pr. thvıｯ

and ap mahaｯbhuｯtas. Madhura dravyas are often

the first choice when treating pitta or vaｯta, although

vaｯttika conditions may require the inclusion of

a dravya that contains us.n.

a to counterbalance the

sｴita quality of madhura, while in paittika conditions

some degree of ruｯks.

a may be needed to counteract

snigdha. Madhura rasa is anabolic in nature,

used to maintain growth and development, utilised in

the general treatment of debility, ageing and reproductive

deficiencies. It represents the essential quality

of love, nourishment and sustenance, and has a harmonising,

satiating and pleasing effect, helping to balance

the effects of opposing rasas in formulations,

e.g. Glycyrrhiza glabra. Although it is never completely

avoided, madhura is contraindicated in

kaphaja conditions such as cough, asthma, diabetes,

obesity, fever and maaｯgni. Madhura rasa is also

said to promote obesity and parasitic infections (e.g.

helminths, candidiasis). Examples of madhura

dravyas include Indian herbs such as Balaｯ

(Sida cordifolia), Goks.ura (Tribulus terrestris), and

Kuｯs.maｯn.d.

a (Benincasa hispida), Western herbs such as

Marshmallow root (Althaea officinalis) and Slippery

Elm bark (Ulmus fulva), as well as most grains, fruits

and animal products.

Amla rasa (sour)

Dravyas or foods with a predominance of amla rasa

increase the qualities of us.n.

a, snigdha and laghu in

the body due to the dominating influence of the ap

and tejas mahaｯbhuｯtas. The qualities of amla resemble

that of pitta, and the catalysing, ‘cooking’ and

churning activity of the gastrointestinal tract, related

to the digestive acid and enzymes as well as the

fermentative activities of probiotic bacteria. Amla

PART 1: Theory and practice of A

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66 yurveda

is generally used in the treatment of maaｯgni, digestive

disorders and vaｯttika conditions, but is contraindicated

in paittika disorders, including

haemorrhage, gastrointestinal inflammation, jaundice

or burning sensations. Although amla generally

counters maaｯgni, in some cases it may increase

kapha because of the presence of ap in its composition,

although only if used without skill or to

excess. Examples of amla dravyas include Indian

herbs such as Aｯ malakıｯ fruit (Phyllanthus emblica) and

Amlavetasa (Garcinia pedunculata), Western herbs

such as Rosehips (Rosa spp.), and also Chinese herbs

such as Shan za fruit (Crataegus pinnatifida) and Chen

pi (Citrus reticulata), as well as fermented foods and

beverages.

Lavan.

a rasa (salty)

Dravyas or foods with a predominance of lavan.

a

rasa increase the qualities of us.n.

a, snigdha and

guru13 in the body due to the dominating influence of

pr. thvıｯ and tejas mahaｯbhuｯtas. In many respects

lavan.

a relates to the dissolved minerals and electrolytes

that conduct an electrical current throughout

the body, and thus plays a key role in the activity

vaｯta and the function of the nervous system. Due to

the influence of tejas, lavan. a rasa tends to increase

pitta, although certain kinds of lavan.

a dravyas

such as saindhava are stated to posses a comparatively

cooling activity and are helpful in paittika disorders

such as diarrhoea or heat stroke. Lavan.

a

tends to promote the mobilisation or liquefaction of

kapha due to its us.n.

a and snigdha qualities, but

can also promote congestive conditions such as

oedema because of the guru quality of lavan.a, especially

when taken in large amounts. Generally speaking,

lavan.

a dravyas are used in the treatment of

cough (to liquefy kapha), to restore the electrolyte

balance of the body (to decrease vaｯta), and to

enhance appetite (increase agni). Contraindications

for lavan.

a dravyas include hypertension, skin diseases,

oedema, ascites, haemorrhage and gastrointestinal

inflammation. Examples of lavan.

a dravyas

include the various salts used in A¯yurvedic medicine

(e.g. saindhava, saｯmudra, audbhida, sauvarcala,

vid.a), seaweeds, Western herbs such as Nettle leaf

(Urtica dioica), foods such as celery, and ocean fish like

mackerel.

Kat.u rasa (pungent)

Dravyas or foods with a predominance of kat.u rasa

increase the qualities of us.n.

a and laghu in the body

due to the dominating influence of vayu and tejas

mahaｯbhuｯtas. Kat.

u rasa acts in opposition to the

basic nature of kapha, and is an important kaphahara

rasa. Laghu and us.n.

a gun. as are dominant in

pitta, however, and thus kat.u rasa is avoided in paittika

conditions. This same laghu nature of kat.u will

also act to increase vaｯta, but if kat.u is used in small

amounts and counterbalanced with dravyas that are

snigdha and guru (e.g. ghr. ta), it can be used in

vaｯttika conditions to reduce sｴita. When taken internally,

kat.u has a special property to promote the

proper flow of energy in the body, harmonising the

interior with the exterior parts of the body, and helps to

direct the movement of the other rasas. As a result,

katu is often included in various formulations to

ensure the absorption and movement of a remedy

throughout the body, e.g. Zingiber officinalis. Externally,

kat.u is used to promote local blood flow. Generally

speaking, kat.u rasa is used in the treatment of

maaｯgni, dysentery, helminthiasis, colds and flu,

asthma, cough, obesity, diabetes and certain skin diseases.

Kat.

u rasa is contraindicated in gastrointestinal

inflammation, haemorrhaging, burning sensations,

reproductive deficiency and urine retention. Examples

of kat.u dravyas include Indian herbs such as Pippalıｯ

fruit (Piper longum) and Sｴuｯn.t.

hıｯ rhizome (Zingiber officinalis),

Western herbs such as Cayenne fruit (Capsicum

minimum), and spicy tasting foods such as tomatoes,

peppers and garlic, as well as distilled alcohol.

Tikta rasa (bitter)

Dravyas or foods with a predominance of tikta rasa

increase the qualities sｴita and ruｯks.

a in the body due

to the dominating influence of vaｯyu and aｯkaｯsｴa

mahaｯbhuｯtas. Tikta stimulates very specific regions of

the tongue and soft palate that can initiate reflex eliminatory

responses such as nausea and vomiting, and as

such, tikta rasa is often used to enhance the eliminatory

faculties of the body. Formulations to reduce pitta

will often include madhura rasa to offset the laghu

qualities of tikta, whereas formulations to reduce

kapha will benefit from adding kat.u rasa to offset the

sｴita nature of tikta. While vaｯttika conditions may

Pharmacology and pharmacy 67

benefit from tikta rasa to assist in the removal of

aｯma, such formulations need to be balanced with

rasas such as amla, kat.u and lavan.

a to avoid

increasing vaｯta. Tikta rasa is used in the general

treatment of maaｯgni, srotorodha (congestion of

the srotaｯm

˙

si), dysentery, helminthiasis, gastrointestinal

inflammation, jaundice and diseases of the liver,

skin diseases, fever, obesity, diabetes and excessive

secretions. Tikta rasa is contraindicated in dryness,

coldness, asthenia, debility and reproductive deficiency.

Examples of tikta dravyas include Indian

herbs such as Nimba leaf (Azadirachta indica) and

Bhuｯnimba herb (Andrographis paniculata), Western

herbs such as Gentian root (Gentiana lutea) and

Goldenseal root (Hydrastis canadensis), and vegetables

such as endive and bitter melon (karela).

Kasｴaｯya rasa (astringent)

Dravyas or foods with a predominance of kasｴaｯya

rasa increase the qualities of ruｯks.

a, sｴita and guru

in the body due to the dominating influence of

pr. thvıｯ and vaｯyu mahaｯbhuｯtas. Kasｴaｯya is used

therapeutically to decrease the excessively snigdha

properties of kapha, and the us.n.

a and laghu properties

of pitta. Although guru, kasｴaｯya rasa is

exceptionally ruｯks.

a in nature and will increase

vaｯta. Similar to kat.u, kaｴsaｯya has a systemic effect

when taken internally, serving to tighten and

toughen the tissues of the body by absorbing excess

fluids and binding proteins together. Kasｴaｯya rasa is

used in the general treatment of diarrhoea, haemorrhage,

wounds and respiratory catarrh, and is contraindicated

in dryness, coldness, debility and

maaｯgni. Examples of kasｴaｯya dravyas include

Indian herbs such as Bibhıｯtaka fruit (Terminalia

belerica) and Kut.

aja (Holarrhena antidysenterica),

Western herbs such as Alum root (Heuchera cylindrica)

and Uva ursi leaf (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), as

well as astringing beverages such as black tea.

6.5 ACTION OF THE rasas UPON

THE dhaｯ tus

The activity of the rasas upon the dhaｯtus can be

divided into either a ‘nourishing’ (br. mhan. a) or

‘depleting’ (langhana) activity. Broadly speaking, only

madhura can be considered br. mhan. a due to its

capacity to increase and nourish all the dhaｯtus. Amla

and lavan.

a rasa could be considered br. mhan. a

because of their stimulant effect upon the jat.haraｯgni,

but they are not nourishing or vitalising, and even

deplete sｴukra/an.d.aｯn.u when used to excess. Lavan.

a

rasa causes water retention and in excess promotes

congestion, but this cannot be considered to be nourishing

as such. Tikta, kat.u and kasｴaｯya rasas all have

a ‘depleting’ (langhana) effect on the body.

Rasa Mahaｯbhuｯ tas Gun. as Effect on Dos.as

Madhura Pr. thvıｯ (earth) ap (water) Guru (heavy), snigdha (greasy), Vaｯtapittahara, kaphakopa

sｴita (cold)

Amla Ap (water) tejas (fire) Us.n.

a (hot), snigdha (greasy), Vaｯtakaphahara, pittakopa

laghu (light)

Lavan.

a Pr.

thvıｯ(earth) tejas (fire) Us.n.

a (hot), snigdha (greasy), Vaｯtapittahara, kaphakopa (int.)

guru (heavy) kaphahara (ext.)

Kat.u Vaｯyu (wind) tejas (fire) Us.n.

a (hot), ruｯks.

a (dry), laghu Kaphahara, pittakopa

(light)

Tikta Vaｯyu (wind) aｯkaｯsｴa (pervasiveness) ｴSita (cold), ruｯks.

a (dry), laghu Pittakaphahara, vaｯtakopa

(light)

Kasｴaｯya Pr. thvıｯ (earth) vaｯyu (wind) Ruｯks.

a (dry), sｴita (cold), guru Pittakaphahara, vaｯtakopa

(heavy)

TABLE 6.2 Rasas in association with the mahaｯbhuｯtas, gun.as, and dos. as.

PART 1: Theory and practice of A

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68 yurveda

6.6 ACTION OF THE rasas UPON agni

Based upon the ancient Vedic concept of agnıｯs.omıiya

(agni and soma) A¯yurveda classifies the rasas according

to their ability to enhance the solar (agni) or lunar

(soma, or ojas) aspects of the body. Within the tridos.a

theory, agni relates to pitta, kapha relates to soma

(ojas), and vaｯta stands between them as the catalyst

(praｯn. a). Those rasas that contain agni are agneya,

while those that contain soma are saumya. Tables 6.3

and 6.4 describe their differences and relative degrees of

hot or cold.

The agneya rasas (kat.u, amla and lavan.

a) stimulate

the appetite and promote digestion. Although tikta

belongs to the saumya group it promotes digestion by

clearing away kapha and aｯma, and promotes the activity

of samaｯna vaｯyu. The guru and sｴita qualities of

madhura and kasｴaｯya have an adverse effect upon the

jat.haraｯgni. Thus, while the most nourishing foods contain

madhura rasa, they may have a detrimental effect

upon the jat.haraｯgni, or if the jat.haraｯgni is already

impaired, facilitate the production of aｯma.

6.7 Vipaｯka: POST-DIGESTIVE EFFECT

Vipaｯka is a controversial subject in some respects

because the process it claims to describe cannot be

observed directly, but only inferred by observing its

effect upon the body. Vipaｯka is the process whereby

the rasa of the ingested dravya is modified by the differing

activities of the digestive process. When a substance

is ingested, digestion begins in the mouth with

salivary secretion (madhura and lavan.

a), followed by

the secretions of the stomach and small intestine

(amla, katu) and liver (tikta), and ending with bacterial

fermentation (amla, kat.u) and water resorption

(kasｴaｯya) in the colon. Thus, vipaｯka describes in part

where in the gastrointestinal tract the rasa of a given

dravya will exert its activity, and how it might affect

the state of the dos.as within their seats (see 2.4

Sthaｯna: residence of the dos.as).

The Susｴruta and Caraka sam. hitaｯs differ in some

respects in describing vipaｯka. According to Sus´ruta,

vipaｯka is only of two types: guru or laghu. Caraka,

however, details three vipaｯkas: madhura, amla and

kat.u. One could rationalise that Sus´ruta’s scheme is a

classification according to the dhaｯtus (anabolic versus

catabolic), whereas Caraka’s method is based on the

three dos.as of kapha, pitta and vaｯta (i.e. madhura,

amla and kat.u, respectively). This is understandable if

we remember that Sus´ruta, as a surgeon, was concerned

with anatomy, and Caraka, as a physician, was

concerned with physiology. Both methods, however,

can be understood in relation to tridos.a:

1. Vipaｯka according to Sus´ruta

● guru vipaｯka will increase kapha and decrease

pitta and vaｯta

● laghu vipaｯka will increase pitta and vaｯta, but

decrease kapha.

2. Vipaｯka according to Caraka

● madhura vipaｯka will increase kapha and

decrease pitta

● amla vipaｯka will tend to aggravate pitta but

pacify vaｯta

● kat.u vipaｯka will increase vaｯta and decrease

kapha.

A guru vipaｯka is the result of madhura and

lavan.

a rasas, whereas a laghu vipaｯka is the result of

the remaining four rasas. A madhura vipaｯka is the

result of madhura and lavan.

a rasas, an amla

vipaｯka is the result of amla rasa, and kat.u vipaｯka is

the result of kat.u, tikta, and kasｴaｯya rasas. While

most dravyas adhere to this scheme, some do not. The

rasa of Bibhıｯtaka (Terminalia belerica), for example, is

primarily kasｴaｯya, but the vipaｯka is madhura. This

type of exception exists for many of the more important

dravyas used in A¯yurvedic medicine.

The significant differences between rasa and

vipaｯka relate to their effects: rasa has an immediate,

Degree of agni Agneya rasas

Hot in the third degree Kat.u

Hot in the second degree Amla

Hot in the first degree Lavan.

a

TABLE 6.3 The agneya rasas.

Degree of soma Saumya rasas

Cold in the third degree Tikta

Cold in the second degree Madhura

Cold in the first degree Kasｴaｯya

TABLE 6.4 The saumya rasas.

Pharmacology and pharmacy 69

localised effect on the gastrointestinal tract, whereas

vipaｯka has a delayed, systemic effect on the organism.

Thus vipaｯka can be seen to be an extension of the

effect that the rasas have on the body, rather than

existing as an entirely different process.

6.8 Vıｯrya: ENERGETIC QUALITIES

Vıｯrya is the specific potency by which a dravya

acts, based primarily on whether it is sｴita or us.n.

a.

This concept borrows heavily from the ancient Vedic

agnıｯsomıｯya principle, the primordial division of heat

and cold, of light and darkness, and male and female.

Although us.n.

a and sｴita are the primordial energetic

attributes that drive all energetic changes in the body,

in practice we can see that any number of qualities

can be described to differentiate the energetic quality

of one particular dravya from another. Thus a

dravya with an us.n.

a and ruｯks.

a vıｯrya would be distguished

from another that is similarly us.n.

a, but is also

guru, snigdha, laghu, picchila etc. Most A¯yurvedic

texts describe these additional qualities separately

under ‘gun. a,’ but this is a needless sub-classification:

in actual practice any and all of the gurvaｯdi gun. as

could be used to describe the different energetic possibilities

of a dravya, but most of these also require

us.n.

a or sｴita to become manifest (i.e. they are all products

of interactions between the agnıｯs.omıiya principle).

Table 6.5 lists the activity of the six primary

energetic qualities (i.e. the upakarmas), their effect

upon the dos.as, their general effect and their respective

elemental combination(s).

As us.n.

a and sｴita are the primary energetic qualities,

most dravyas will display either of them, usually

with secondary attributes of the remaining upakarmas,

such as laghu or guru, and snigdha or ruｯks.

a.

Sometimes a dravya will be neutral in temperament,

however, which is to say, neither us.n.

a nor sｴita seem

especially predominant. In this case, the secondary

energetic attribute(s) would become the primary one(s).

In every respect vıｯrya supersedes the actions of

rasa and vipaｯka, although more often than not the relationship

between them is congruent, even when considering

non-Indian plants, as shown in Table 6.6.

There are, however, a number of contradictions to

this rule of congruency so one cannot substitute

theory for an intimate knowledge of the dravya in

question. For example, although meat has a madhura

rasa, its vıｯrya is us.n.

a: this explains the benefit

of using meat to counter the ruｯks.

a, laghu and sｴita

qualities of vaｯta. Aｯ malakıｯ fruit (Phyllanthus emblica)

has a definite amla rasa, but its vıｯrya is sｴita: thus as

a cooling remedy Aｯ malakıｯ is used to treat pitta, and

as a sour-tasting fruit it enhances digestion and normalises

agni. Harıｯtakıｯ fruit (Terminalia chebula) has a

kasｴaｯya rasa, but its vıｯrya is us.n.

a, drawing out and

digesting aｯma, while countering the sｴita vıｯrya of

vaｯta. The degree of exceptional characteristics that

a given dravya displays is often proportionate to its

usefulness, and such herbs that contain contradictory

qualities are often a better choice in the treatment of

complex disease states.

6.9 Karma: THERAPEUTIC ACTION

Karma refers to the specific therapeutic activity of a

given dravya, a concept that in many ways resembles

that of Western herbal medicine. In fact, the entire terminology

of therapeutic actions commonly used in

Western herbal medicine such as ‘stomachic’, ‘carminative’,

and ‘purgative’ may be used in A¯yurveda without

contradiction, because these too describe the

observed effects of a dravya. Karma literally means

‘action’, and the therapeutic activity of a given

Vıｯrya Effect upon the dos.as General effect Mahaｯbhuｯtas

us.n.

a Vaｯtakaphahara, pittakopa Svedana (‘heating’) Tejas

sｴita Pittahara, vaｯtakaphakopa Stambhana (‘cooling’) Ap

guru Vaｯtaｯhara Br.mhan.a (‘nourishing’) Pr. thvıｯ, ap

laghu Kaphahara Langhana (‘depleting’) Tejas, vaｯyu

snigdha Vaｯtaｯhara Snehana (‘moistening’) Ap

ruｯks.

a Vaｯtakopa, kaphahara Ruｯks.

ana (‘drying’) Vaｯyu, pr. thvıｯ

TABLE 6.5 The composition and effect of vıｯrya.

PART 1: Theory and practice of A

-

70 yurveda

dravya is an effect (karma) based upon the collective

activities of rasa, vipaｯka and vıｯrya.

A¯

yurvedic medicine describes 20 basic karmas, each

derived from the gurvaｯdi gun. as. Each of the gurvaｯdi

gun. as can be identified with a specific effect or activity

(karma) in the body, and these actions form the basis for

the observed effect of different medications and therapies.

These effects are listed in Table 6.7.

While all the different karmas are recognised and

form the basis of a therapeutic rationale, they are

broadly separated based on the actions of tiks.n.

a

(‘fast’) and manda (‘slow’). Thus any karma is of two

basic types: sｴodhana (‘purificatory’) or sｴamana

(‘pacificatory’). ｴSodhana karmas are most commonly

referred to as the paa karmas, used on an

in-patient basis, and are vamana (‘vomiting’), virecana

Rasa Vipaｯka Vıｯrya Example

Madhura Guru Sｴita Marshmallow root (Althaea officinalis),

decreases pitta and vaｯta

Lavan.

a Guru Us.n.

a Kelp (Fucus vesiculosis), decreases vaｯta

Amla Laghu Us.n.

a Shan za fruit (Crataegus pinnatifida),

decreases kapha and vaｯta

Kat.u Laghu Us.n.

a Cayenne fruit (Capsicum minimum),

decreases kapha

Tikta Laghu Sｴita Goldenseal root (Hydrastis canadensis),

decreases pitta and kapha

Kasｴaｯya Laghu Sｴita White Oak bark (Quercus alba), decreases

kapha and pitta

TABLE 6.6 Relationship of vıｯrya with rasa and vipaｯka, with examples.

Gun.a Karma Meaning

Guru Br.mhan.a To nourish, grow, expand

Laghu Laghu To lessen, reduce, diminish

Sｴ

ita Stambhana To arrest, retain, make firm

Us.na Svedana To inspire, perspire, make soft

Ruｯks.

a Sｴos.ana To dry, dehydrate, suck out

Snigdha Kledana To moisten, hydrate, anoint

Manda Sｴ amana To appease, allay, suppress

Tiks.n.

a Sｴodhana To counter, arouse, purify

Sthira Dhaｯran.aｯ To hold, preserve, sustain

Cala (sara) Preran.a To release, expend, excite

Mr.du Sｴ lathana To slacken, loosen, weaken

Kat.

hin.a Dr.

d.

hıｯkarana To strengthen, tighten, fortify

Visｴada Ks.aｯlana To strip away, remove, scrape

Picchila Lepana To plaster, anoint, soothe

Sｴ

laks.na Ropan.a To unite, anoint, sustain

Khara Lekhana To attenuate, scrape, diminish

Suｯks.

ma Vivaran.a To expand, unfold, express

Sthuｯla Samvaran.a To conceal, cover, suppress

Saｯra Prasaｯdana To render pure, pacify

Drava Vilodana To mix together, churn

TABLE 6.7 Gurvaｯdi gun. as and their karmas (‘actions’).

Pharmacology and pharmacy 71

(‘purgation’), vasti (‘enema’), nasya (‘errhine’), and

rakta moks.an. a (‘venesection’) (see Ch. 11). ｴSamana

therapies are treatments used on an out-patient basis,

and include br. mhan. a (‘nourishing’), langhana

(‘depleting’), svedana (‘heating’), stambhana (‘cooling’),

ruｯks.

ana (‘drying’), and snehana (‘moistening’)

(see Ch. 11). The five types of sｴodhana karmas and

six types of sｴamana karmas form much of the therapeutic

basis of A¯ yurvedic medicine. In addition to the

karmas derived from the gurvaｯdi gun. as, however,

texts such as the S ｴ aｯran . gadhara sam. hitaｯ (c. 13th CE)

mention other types of actions, some that describe a

physiological response or activity, and others correlated

to the alleviation of a particular symptom or disease.

Following the work of scholars such as P. V.

Sharma (1976), some of the many actions described

in A¯yurveda are listed as follows, described on the

basis of which physiological system they tend to affect:

Digestion

● Dıｯpana: dravyas that enkindle agni, e.g. Gud.uｯcıｯ

vine (Tinospora cordifolia).

● Paｯcana: dravyas that ‘cook’ or denature the food

that has been consumed, e.g. Marica fruit (Piper

nigrum).

(Many dravyas in fact contain both the activities of

dıｯpana and paｯcana, e.g. Harıｯtakıｯ fruit (Terminalia

chebula), and are called dıｯpanapaｯcana.)

● Anulomana: dravyas that assist in digestion and

promote normal bowel movement, e.g. Ajamodaｯ

fruit (Trachyspermum roxiburghianum).

● Aｯsyasravan. a: dravyas that promote the flow of

saliva, e.g. Tum˙ buruｯ fruit (Zanthoxylum alatum).

● Vamana: dravyas that promote emesis, e.g.

Madanaphala fruit (Randia dumetorum).

● Chardinigrahan.a: dravyas that act as antiemetics,

e.g. ｴSatapus.paｯ fruit (Foeniculum vulgare).

● Bhedana: dravyas that forcibly expel the

contents of the bowel, e.g. Kat.

uka rhizome

(Picrorrhiza kurroa).

● Recana: dravyas that forcibly expel the contents of

the bowel in liquid form, e.g. Trivr.

t root (Operculina

turpethum).

● Arsｴoghna: dravyas that treat haemorrhoids, e.g.

Harıｯtakıｯ fruit (Terminalia chebula).

● ｴSulaprasｴamana: dravyas that act as intestinal

antispasmodics, e.g. ｴSuｯn.t.

hıｯ rhizome (Zingiber

officinalis).

● Purıｯs.asan˙grahan. a: dravyas that act as intestinal

astringents, e.g. Kut.

aja bark (Holarrhena antidysenterica).

● Kr. mighna: dravyas that act as antihelminthics,

e.g. Vid.

an

.

ga fruit (Embelia ribes).

Circulatory system

● Hr. daya: dravyas that treat diseases of the heart,

e.g. Arjuna bark (Terminalia arjuna).

● Sｴon. itasthaｯpana: dravyas that stop bleeding, e.g.

Naｯgakesｴara flower (Mesua ferrea).

● Raktaprasaｯdana: dravyas that purify the blood,

e.g. Mais.t.

haｯ root (Rubia cordifolia).

Respiratory system

● Kaｯsahara: dravyas that act as antitussives or

bronchial sedatives, e.g. Khakhasa immature capsule

(Papaver somniferum).

● Svaｯsahara: dravyas that alleviate bronchial constriction,

e.g. Bibhıｯtaka fruit (Terminalia chebula).

● Chedana: dravyas that act as expectorants, e.g.

Vaｯsaka leaf (Adhatoda vasica).

● Svarya: dravyas that promote the voice, e.g.

Guggulu resin (Commiphora mukul).

● Hikkaｯnigrahan. a: treatments that stop hiccoughs,

e.g. praｯn. ayama.

Urinary system

● Muｯtravirecana: dravyas that act as diuretics, e.g.

Goks.ura fruit (Tribulus terrestris).

● Muｯtrasan˙grahan. a: dravyas that act as urinary

astringents, e.g. Jambuｯ fruit (Syzygium cumini).

● Muｯtravisｴodhana: dravyas that act as antiinfectives

in the urinary tract, e.g. Candana wood

(Santalum album).

● Asｴmaribhedana: dravyas that act to remove

stones, e.g. Agnimaha root (Premna integrifolia).

● Sｴothahara: dravyas that relieve oedema, e.g.

Bilva leaf (Aegle marmelos).

Nervous system, brain and

sense organs

● Medhya: dravyas that promote buddhi, e.g.

Man.d.

uｯkaparn.

ıｯ leaf (Centella asiatica).

PART 1: Theory and practice of A

-

72 yurveda

● Caks.us.ya: dravyas that enhance eyesight, e.g.

Aｯ

malakıｯ fruit (Phyllanthus emblica).

● Nasya: dravyas that restore the sense of smell, e.g.

Kat.

phala bark (Myrica nagi).

● Madakaｯrıｯ: dravyas that intoxicate, e.g. Paｯrasikayava

ｯnıｯ root (Hyocyamus niger).

● Sam. jｯsthaｯpana: dravyas used to restore consciousness,

e.g. Vacaｯ rhizome (Acorus calamus).

● Nidraｯjanana: dravyas that promote sleep, e.g.

Sarpagandhaｯ root (Rauwolfia serpentina).

● Vedanaｯsthaｯpana: dravyas that relieve pain, e.g.

Guggulu resin (Commiphora mukul).

● Vyavaｯyi: dravyas that act very quickly by spreading

all over the body, e.g. Bhan

.

gaｯ flower (Cannabis indica).

Reproductive system

● Vajıｯkaran. a: dravyas that enhance fertility, e.g.

Asｴvagandhaｯ root (Withania somnifera).

● Prajaｯsthaｯpana: dravyas that prevent miscarriage,

e.g. Sｴ ataｯvarıｯ root (Asparagus racemosa).

● Stanyajanana: dravyas that promote milk production,

e.g. Yavaｯnıｯ fruit (Trachyspermum ammi).

● Aｯ rtavajanana: dravyas that promote menstruation,

e.g. Kumaｯrıｯ leaf juice (Aloe vera).

Skin

● Svedana: treatments that promote sweating, e.g.

steam bath.

● Snehana: dravyas that smooth the skin, e.g. fat, oil.

● Ruｯks.

ana: dravyas that roughen the skin, e.g.

Yava fruit (Barley).

● Varnya: dravyas that promote complexion, e.g.

Haridraｯ rhizome (Curcuma longa).

● Kand.uｯghna: dravyas that stop itching, e.g.

Nimba leaf (Azadirachta indica).

● Kus.

t.

haghna: dravyas that relieve skin diseases,

e.g. Kus.

t.

ha root (Saussurea lappa).

● Romasaanana: dravyas that promote hair

growth, e.g. Nirgun.d.

ıｯ leaf (Vitex negundo).

Metabolism

● Jvaraghna: dravyas that reduce fever, e.g.

Kiratatika (Swertia chiretta).

● Daｯhaprasｴamana: dravyas that reduce heat and

burning sensations, e.g. cool milk.

● Vidaｯhi: dravyas that cause burning sensations,

e.g. Vam˙

sｴayava fruit (Bambusa arundinacea).

● Vis.

aghna: dravyas that alleviate poisons, e.g.

ｴ Siris.a (Albizzia lebbeck).

● Sandhaｯnıｯya: dravyas that promote healing, e.g.

Yas.t.

imadhu root (Glycyrrhiza glabra).

● Medohara: dravyas that reduce fat, e.g. Guggulu

resin (Commiphora mukul).

● Lekhana: dravyas that dry up excessive moisture

in the body, e.g. Yava fruit (Barley).

● Graｯhıｯ: dravyas that dry up the excessive moisture

in the body and are dıｯpanapaｯcana, e.g. Sｴyonaｯka

root (Oroxylum indicum).

● Rasaｯyana: dravyas that ward off old age and disease,

e.g. Punarnavaｯ root (Boerhavia diffusa).

● Balya: dravyas that increase strength, e.g. Balaｯ

root (Sida cordifolia).

● Jıｯvanıｯya: dravyas that energize the body, e.g.

Jıｯvantıｯ root (Leptadenia reticulata).

Srotaｯm

˙

si

● Pramaｯthi: dravyas that remove the accumulated

dos.as from the srotaｯm. si, e.g. Marica fruit (Piper

nigrum).

● Abhis.yandıｯ: dravyas that block the srotaｯm

˙

si

because of their guru and picchila nature, causing

heaviness and congestion, e.g. dadhi (yogurt,

taken internally).

● Suｯks.

ma: dravyas that enter into even the most minute

channel of the body, e.g. Saindhava (rock salt).

Dos.as

● Vaｯtaｯhara, vaｯtaghna: dravyas that decrease vaｯta.

● Vaｯtakopa: dravyas that increase vaｯta.

● Pittahara, pittaghna: dravyas that decrease

pitta.

● Pittakopa: dravyas that increase pitta.

● Kaphahara, kaphaghna: dravyas that decrease

kapha.

● Kaphakopa: dravyas that increase kapha.

● Tridos.ahara, tridos.aghna: dravyas that reduce

all three dos.as.

Pharmacology and pharmacy 73

6.10 Prabhaｯva: SPIRITUAL POTENCY

Prabhaｯva refers to the activity of a dravya that cannot

be rationalised within the conceptual framework of

dravygun. a. Whereas rasa, vipaｯka and vıｯrya are

described as cintya (‘explicable’), prabhaｯva is said to

be acintya (‘inexplicable’). A classic illustration of

prabhaｯva can be found when we compare the

herb Citraka (Plumbago zeylanica) with Daıｯ

(Baliospermum montanum). Both of these dravyas have

the identical rasa, vipaｯka and vıｯrya, but the latter is a

strong purgative while the former is not. Thus

prabhaｯva describes how certain dravyas seem to display

a specificity in action that cannot be matched by

another herb which otherwise exhibits the same qualities.

More often than not, prabhaｯva refers to the tropism

of a dravya to a specific ailment, such as Arjuna

(Terminalia arjuna) for diseases of the heart.

Prabhaｯva is also representative of the spiritual

basis of A¯ yurvedic medicine. In regard to medicinal

plants, prabhaｯva is the teacher (guru), the healing

wisdom of the plant that cannot be rationalised but

understood only through the experience of spiritual

insight. This approach finds resonance in other herbal

traditions, such as shamanism, where plants are not

simply viewed as another kind of organism, but

rather, as representatives or manifestations of powerful

spiritual energies (e.g. the sacred and mysterious

plant called Soma mentioned in the R.

g veda).

Furthermore, prabhaｯva explains how a dravya can

be used in such small amounts that its action cannot

be explained by its biochemical constituents, as is the

case with highly potentised alchemical preparations

such as bhasmas, or more recently, with the use of

flower essences and homeopathic remedies.

Prabhaｯva also refers to techniques used in processing

a dravya, such as the addition of semiprecious

and precious metals and gems, and the

chanting of mantras for specific periods of time during

different stages of processing. Although such

techniques may seem alien and superstitious to the

Western mind, they have their basis in science. Such

traditional methods used in the processing of crude

aconite, for example, resulted in a preparation that

was assessed to be non-toxic, even at dosages eight

times greater than the LD100 for the crude drug

(Thorat & Dahanukar 1991).

6.11 Bhais. ajya vyaｯkhyaｯna:

PRINCIPLES OF PHARMACY

It is rare that a dravya can be taken in its natural or

raw state as a medicament without first preparing it in

a certain fashion, to either remove impurities and toxins,

or to make the medicament more bioavailable. The

following techniques discuss the most commonly used

procedures in A¯yurvedic herbal pharmacy, but do not

represent all the different techniques used in

A¯

yurvedic medicine.

Paa kasｴaｯya: aqueous extracts

The paa kasｴaｯya are the ‘five aqueous extracts’,

consisting of:

1. Svarasa: expressed juice, prepared by taking the

fresh plant, wrapping it in cloth and pounding

and squeezing it to express the juice. If the fresh

plant is not available, one may also take one part

of the dried powder and mix it with twice the

amount of water. This is allowed to sit overnight

before being squeezed out through a cloth.

Svarasa is considered to be the heaviest to digest

and most potent of the paa kasｴaｯya, and is typically

dosed at a half a pala (12–24 mL), twice

daily. Prepared as needed.

2. Kalka: bolus, is prepared by grinding the dravya

in a mortar and pestle and adding just enough

water to make a paste. Honey and/or ghr. ta are

often added to the preparation. Kalka is typically

dosed at one kars.

a (12 g), twice daily. Prepared as

needed.

3. Kvaｯtha: decoction, prepared by boiling one part

(by weight) of the coarsely powdered dravya in

16 parts water (by volume) in a covered earthenware

pot, over a medium-low heat until it is

reduced to one quarter of its original volume.

Kvaｯtha is typically dosed at two palas (96 mL).

Prepared as needed.

4. Hima: cold infusion, prepared by allowing one

part (by weight) of the coarsely ground dravya to

infuse in eight parts (by volume) of water

overnight. Hima is typically dosed at two palas

(96 mL), twice daily. Prepared as needed.

5. Phaｯn.t.

a: warm infusion, prepared by infusing one

part (by weight) of the coarsely ground powder

PART 1: Theory and practice of A

-

74 yurveda

dravya in four parts (by volume) of hot water for

8–10 minutes. The resultant preparation is then

filtered out through a cloth or sieve. Phaｯn.t.

a is

typically dosed at two palas (96 mL), twice daily.

Prepared as needed.

Cuｯrn.

a: powdered dravya

Cuｯrn.

a refers to the finely powdered, finely sieved

dravya. Cuｯrn.

a are typically dosed at one kars.

a (12 g)

twice daily, and administered with some combination of

honey, ghr. ta, sugar or fried Hin. gu (Asafoetida ferula).

If taken with liquid such as water or milk, the liquid portion

should be four times the volume of the cuｯrn.

a. Stored

in a dark-coloured vessel, in a cool location, the shelf life

of a freshly powdered cuｯrn.

a is 6 months to a year.

Guggulu: resins

Guggulu are a class of medications that are prepared by

macerating dravyas with the purified resin of Guggulu

(Commiphora mukul). There are two ways to purify

Guggulu. In the first method, the resin is purified by first

picking out adulterants by hand, breaking the resin into

small pieces, bundling these pieces in a piece of cloth,

and then boiling it in various fluids including cow urine,

a decoction of Triphala, or milk. When the resin is a soft

mass it is taken out and spread over a wooden board that

has been oiled with ghr. ta or taila and any further adulterants

are removed by hand. The resin is then fried in

ghr. ta and then ground into a powder in a mortar. The

second method to prepare a guggulu is to steam or boil

the bundled resin until it melts through the cloth into the

fluid, leaving behind the adulterants. The fluid is then filtered

and boiled again until all the water has evaporated

and only the resin remains. This resin is collected, dried in

the sun, and then pounded with ghr. ta in a mortar until it

has a waxy consistency. Once prepared according to either

method, the resin is then mixed with various dravyas to

create specific formulas. Guggulu are typically administered

with warm water, honey, fresh plant juices or herbal

decoctions, in doses of about three maｯs.as (3 g), twice

daily. Stored in a dark-coloured vessel, in a cool location,

the shelf life of a guggulu can be 2–3 years.

Gut.ikaｯ and vat.

ıｯ: pill

Gut.ikaｯ and vat.

ıｯ are prepared by either cooking and

macerating the powdered dravya with an excipient

such as jaggery, sugar or Guggulu (Commiphora mukul

resin), or macerating it uncooked with a liquid or

honey, and rolling it into pills when the desired consistency

is achieved. Gut.ikaｯ and vat.

ıｯ are used according

to the strength of the patient, based on the potency of

the dravyas used, as well as the actual size of the pill

itself. The dosage for gut.ikaｯ typically ranges between

one and two gua (125–250 mg), or from two to four

maｯs.a (2–4 g), depending on the formulation, twice

daily. Stored in a dark-coloured vessel, in a cool location,

the shelf life of gut.ikaｯ and vat.

ıｯ can be 2–3 years.

Avaleha: confection

Avaleha is prepared by reducing a kvaｯtha over a very

low heat until all the water has evaporated, after which

the resultant tarry residue is collected and mixed with

ghr. ta, jaggery or honey. Avaleha is dosed at one pala

(48 g) once to twice daily, with four times the volume of

any such liquid that is appropriate. Many avaleha

recipes are extremely complex in nature and this simple

rendering does not account for the preparation of all

avalehas, and thus dosages may be different. Stored in

a dark-coloured vessel, in a cool location, the shelf life of

an avaleha can be 2–3 years.

Sneha: medicated fats and oils

Sneha are typically prepared by taking one part powderd

dravya (by weight) to four parts fat or oil (by volume),

to 16 parts water (by volume). This preparation

is then brought to the boil and simmered over a low

heat until all the water has evaporated. The resultant

preparation is then cooled and strained through a fine

cloth. Some sneha formulations use a different proportion

of dravya to oil to water, and some use other liquids

such as milk instead of water. The internal dosage

for sneha typically ranges between one half and one

kars.

a (6–12 g), once to twice daily. Externally, sneha

is used in large volumes, between one and four

prasthas (768–3072 mL) per day. For nasya (nasal

administration), the dosage ranges from two to ten

bindus (drops), depending on the formula and the

treatment. Stored in a dark-coloured vessel, in a cool

location, the shelf life of taila (medicated sesame oils)

can be 2–3 years, whereas ghr. ta (medicated ghee) can

actually increase in potency over decades if properly

stored. Any stored fat should be free of a rancid or

musty odour or flavour.

 

Om Tat Sat

                                                        

(Continued...) 

(My humble salutations to  ,   Sreeman Todd Caldecott, Elsevier’s Health Sciences and others other eminent medical scholars and doctors   for the collection)