Ayurveda the divine science of life -20

Ayurveda the divine science of life

BOTANICAL NAME: Asparagus racemosus, Liliaceae

OTHER NAMES:A¯ bh¯ıru, Bahusuta¯, S´ ata¯vı¯rya¯ (S); Satavar, Satmuli (H); Kilavari,

Satavali (T); Wild Asparagus (E); Tian Men Dong (C)

´Sata¯ varı¯ , ‘one hundred roots’ 271

Contraindications: kaphakopa, agnima¯ndya and

a¯ma, due to its ´sita vı¯rya and snigdha and guru

properties.

Medicinal uses: ´Sata¯varı¯ is an important medicament

in A¯ yurvedic medicine to relieve vitiations of

va¯ta and pitta, combining a nourishing and

strengthening activity (br. mhan. a) with soothing

demulcent and emollient properties (snehana).

´Sata¯varı¯ is thus indicated in any kind of irritation and

inflammation in the gastrointestinal, respiratory and

urinary tracts. It is particularly indicated in

amlapitta or ‘acid gastritis’, most notably in the form

of a medicated ghr. ta compound called ´Sata¯varı¯

ghr. ta, prepared by decocting a paste of ´Sata¯varı¯ root

along with an equal quantity of the fresh root juice

in milk and ghr. ta. The Cakradatta states that

´Sata¯varı¯ ghr. ta alleviates amlapitta caused by vitiations

of va¯ta, pitta, and rakta, and can also be used

in the treatment of thirst, fainting, dyspnoea and gout

(Sharma 2002). The Bha¯vapraka¯´sa recommends

´Sata¯varı¯ ghr. ta in the treatment of passive haemorrhage,

gastritis, asthma and consumptive conditions

(Srikanthamurthy 2000). For va¯ttika fever the fresh

juice of ´Sata¯varı¯ and Gud.u¯cı¯ are mixed with jaggery

and taken internally (Sharma 2002). Decocted

with goat’s milk ´Sata¯varı¯ is used in the treatment of

raktapitta and of the passive haemorrhaging of the

nose, eyes, ears, mouth, vagina or rectum (Sharma

2002). ´Sata¯varı¯ is also an important remedy in consumption

and cachexia, used along with botanicals

such as A´svagandha¯, Bala¯, Na¯gabala¯, Goks.ura,

Va¯saka, Punarnava¯ and Pus.karamu¯la. Combined

with equal parts Trikat.u, Triphala, Bala¯ and

Atibala¯, all of which are then combined with equal

parts lauhabhasma (purified iron ore), ´Sata¯varı¯ is

used in consumptive conditions with severe cachexia,

stiffness of the limbs and facial paralysis (Sharma

2002). In the treatment of vertigo ´Sata¯varı¯ can be

decocted in milk with Bala¯ and Dra¯ks.

a¯ (Sharma

2002). For epilepsy a simple milk decoction of

´Sata¯varı¯ is recommended by the Cakradatta

(Sharma 2002). ´Sata¯varı¯ is also an important ingredient

in Maha¯na¯ra¯yan.

a taila, used topically in

abhyan . ga in the treatment of angina, muscular

spasm, inflammation and pain. Combined with equal

parts Kat.uka, Gud.u¯cı¯, Triphala and Pat.

ola,

´Sata¯varı¯ is used internally in the treatment of gout

(Sharma 2002). In the treatment of disease of the

heart ´Sata¯varı¯ can be used along with botanicals

such as Arjuna and Bala¯. Prepared as a milk decoction

with Goks.ura, and taken with jaggery as an

anupa¯na, ´Sata¯varı¯ can be used in the treatment of

paittika variants of dysuria, with burning sensations

and haematuria. Although the name ´Sata¯varı¯ can be

translated as ‘one hundred roots’, (´sat ‘one hundred’,

a¯varı¯-‘below’) referring to the panicle of roots that is

characteristic of the plant’s habit, ´Sata¯varı¯ has also

been translated to mean ‘one hundred husbands’,

indicating its potent vajı¯karan. a properties, especially

in women (Frawley & Lad 1986). ´Sata¯varı¯ is a common

component of many different A¯ yurvedic formulations

used to treat disorders of the female

reproductive tract, used along with botanicals such as

Bala¯, Atibala¯, Yas.t.

imadhu, Na¯gake´sara, A´svagandha

¯, Kuma¯rı¯ juice, Kuran.

t.

aka, Nı¯lotpala and

Kumuda. The Cakradatta suggests that ´Sata¯varı¯ is

an effective vajı¯karan. a rasa¯yana, decocted in milk

and ghr. ta and taken with honey and Pippalı¯ cu¯rn.

a

(Sharma 2002). To prevent threatened miscarriage

(praja¯stha¯pana) the Cakradatta recommends

a milk decoction of ´Sata¯varı¯, Mañjis.t.

ha¯,

Apa¯ma¯rga, and Tila. As a galactagogue (stanyajanana)

a simple milk decoction of ´Sata¯varı¯ is

often used, or is part of more complex formulations

that include botanicals such as A´svagandha¯, Yava¯nı¯

and Kus.t.ha. As a restorative for the male reproductive

system and to replenish the shukla dha¯tu, ´Sata¯varı¯

is taken along with botanicals such as A´svagandha¯,

Bala¯, Kapikacchu¯, Goks.ura and Tila. To augment

the size of the breasts as well as the penis the

Cakradatta recommends a medicated oil to be massaged

into these tissues, prepared by decocting

´Sata¯varı¯, A´svagandha¯, Kus.

t.

ha, Jat.

a¯ma¯msı¯ and

Br. hatı¯ in milk and sesame oil, until all the milk is

evaporated (Sharma 2002). In Chinese medicine a

very similar species of Asparagus called Tian Men Dong

(Asparagus cochinchinesis) is used as a kidney and lung

yin restorative in the treatment of dryness of the

lungs, haemoptysis, thirst, constipation and asthenia

(Bensky & Gamble 1993).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–15 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 60–120 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: recently dried root, 1:3, 25% alcohol,

1–10 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

272 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

REFERENCES

Bensky D, Gamble A 1993 Chinese herbal medicine materia medica,

revised edn. Eastland Press, Seattle, p 359–360

Dahanukar S, Thatte U, Pai N et al 1986 Protective effect of

Asparagus racemosus against induced abdominal sepsis. Indian

Drugs 24:125–128

Dalvi SS, Nadkarni PM, Gupta KC 1990 Effect of Asparagus

racemosus (Shatavari) on gastric emptying time in normal

healthy volunteers. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine

36(2):91–94

Datta GK, Sairam K, Priyambada S et al 2002 Antiulcerogenic activity

of Satavari mandur: an Ayurvedic herbo-mineral preparation.

Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 40(10):1173–1177

Dinan L, Savchenko T, Whiting P 2001 Phytoecdysteroids in the genus

Asparagus (Asparagaceae). Phytochemistry 56(6):569–576

Frawley D, Lad V 1986 The Yoga of herbs: an Ayurvedic guide to

herbal medicine. Lotus, Santa Fe, p 183

Jetmalani MH, Sabins PB, Gaitonde BB 1967 A study on the pharmacology

of various extracts of Shatavari: Asparagus racemosus

(Willd). Indian Journal of Medical Research 2:1–10

Joglekar GV, Ahuja RH, Balwani JH 1967 Galactogogue effect of

Asparagus racemosus. Indian Medical Journal 61(7):165

Kamat JP, Boloor KK, Devasagayam TP, Venkatacalam SR 2000

Anti-oxidant properties of Asparagus racemosus against damage

induced by gamma-radiation in rat liver mitochondria.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 71(3):425–435

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 2499

Krishnamurthy KM 1991 Wealth of Su´sruta. International

Institute of A¯yurveda, Coimbatore

Mandal SC, Kumar C KA, Mohana Lakshmi S et al 2000a

Antitussive effect of Asparagus racemosus root against sulfur

dioxide-induced cough in mice. Fitoterapia 71(6):686–689

Mandal SC, Nandy A, Pal M, Saha BP 2000b Evaluation of antibacterial

activity of Asparagus racemosus willd. root.

Phytotherapy Research 14(2):118–119

Muruganandan S, Garg H, Lal J et al 2000 Studies on the

immunostimulant and antihepatotoxic activities of Asparagus

racemosus root extract. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic

Plant Sciences 22–23(4A–1A):49–52

Rao AR 1981 Inhibitory action of Asparagus racemosus on DMBAinduced

mammary carcinogoenesis in rats. International

Journal of Cancer 28(5):607–610

Rege NN, Nazareth HM, Isaac A et al 1989 Immunotherapeutic

modulation of intraperitoneal adhesions by Asparagus racemosus.

Journal of Postgraduate Medicine 35(4):199–203

Roy RN, Bhagwager S, Chavan SR, Dutta NK 1971 Preliminary

pharmacological studies on extracts of root of Asparagus racemosus

(Satavari), Willd, N.O. Lilliaceae. Indian Journal of

Medical Research 6:132–138

Sabins PB, Gaitonde BB, Jetmalani M 1968 Effect of alcoholic

extract of Asparagus racemosus on mammary glands of rats.

Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 6:55–57

Sairam K, Priyambada S, Aryya NC, Goel RK 2003 Gastroduodenal

ulcer protective activity of Asparagus race-mosus: an experimental,

biochemical and histological study. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology 86(1):1–10

Saxena VK, Chourasia S 2001 A new isoflavone from the roots of

Asparagus racemosus. Fitoterapia 72(3):307–309

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta: Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 12, 124, 137, 178, 192, 234,

236, 458, 653, 654

Singh KP, Singh RH 1986 Clinical trial on Satavari (Asparagus

racemosus Willd.) in duodenal ulcer disease. Journal of

Research in A¯yurveda and Siddha 7:91–100

Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯: a treatise on

A¯

yurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi

Srikanthamurthy KR 2000 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bhavami´shra, vol 2.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 222

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 257

Tabar A, Alvarez M, Celay E et al 2003 Allergy to the asparagus.

Anales Del Sistema Sanitario de Navarra 26(Suppl 2):17–23

Thatte U, Chhabria S, Karandikar SM, Dahanukar S 1987

Immunotherapeutic modification of E. coli induced abdominal

sepsis and mortality in mice by Indian medicinal plants. Indian

Drugs 25:95–97

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 1. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 218–223

Williamson EM (ed) 2002 Major herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill

Livingstone, London, p 52

´Sila¯jatu, ‘to become like stone’ 273

Description: ´Sila¯jatu is a curious resin that can be

found exuding from certain steep rock faces in the

Himalayan mountain range at altitudes between 1000

and 5000 m. Similar exudates have also been found in

other mountain ranges in what is called the Tethyan

mountain system, including the Caucasus, Urals, Pamir,

Hindu Kush, Karakoram, Tian Shan and Kunlun Shan

ranges, and have also been identified as far away as

Norway. Sila¯jatu is typically found in the summer when

the hot sun beats down upon the rocks causing the resin

to liquefy and exude, and then harden again upon cooling.

As its older common name of bitumen suggests,

´Sila¯jatu was once thought to be the ancient fossilised

organic material from what was once the coastline of

the tropical Tethys Sea region that existed between the

subcontinent of India and Eurasia some 200 million

years ago. More recent research, however, has indicated

that ´Sila¯jatu is composed primarily of humus with

other organic constituents, and is thus likely to be of relatively

recent origin. Researchers have found the

degraded components of several different medicinal

plants in samples of ´Sila¯jatu, including Euphorbia

royleana and Trifolium repens, leading to the idea that

´Sila¯jatu is in large part derived from the humification of

a variety of resin- or latex-containing plants. The

Bha¯vapraka¯´sa states that there are four types of

´Sila¯jatu, classified according to their respective colours,

each with a different medicinal activity: sauvarn.

a is

reddish; rajata is yellowish; ta¯mra is bluish; and

lauha is blackish. The Caraka sam. hita¯ also classifies

´Sila¯jatu based on the morphological features of the

rock from which it exudes. Modern research supports

these time-honoured perspectives, as it appears that the

composition of ´Sila¯jatu is influenced by a variety of

factors, including the particular humified plant species

involved, the geological nature of the rock, local temperature,

humidity and altitude (Phillips 1997, Sharma

& Dash 1988, Srikanthamurthy 2001).

Part used: Purified exudate.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: all varieties are kat.u and tikta; sauvarna is

also madhura, and lauha is lavan. a

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u (sauvarn.

a, lauha, ta¯mra), madhura

(rajata)

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a (ta¯mra), ´sita (lauha, sauvarn.

a, rajata)

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, kr . mighna, chedana, ka¯sahara,

sva¯sahara, kus.t.

haghna, mu¯travirecana, medohara,

sandha¯nı ¯ya, vis.aghna, hr . daya, medhya, vajı ¯karan. a,

rasa¯yana, tridos.aghna (Nadkarni 1954, Sharma &

Dash 1988, Srikanthamurthy 1995, 2001).

● Prabha¯va: The Caraka sam. hita¯ states that ‘ . . .

there is no curable disease in the universe that

cannot be cured by ´Sila¯jatu’ when administered

at the appropriate time, in combination with

suitable dravyas, and by using the proper method

of preparation. Caraka further adds that by taking

´Sila¯jatu the body becomes strong and sturdy,

as if made of stone (Sharma & Dash 1988). The

Cakradatta states that if a small piece of ´Sila¯jatu is

kept in the mouth it has the ability to give victory

in debates and disputes (Sharma 2002).

Constituents: The complex chemistry of ´Sila¯jatu is

highly variable, depending upon the where it was collected

and processing methods. The early chemical

research on crude ´Sila¯jatu indicated a variety of constituents,

including a mixture of organic constituents

(e.g. benzoic acid, hippuric acid, fatty acids, resins,

waxes, gums, albuminoids and vegetable matter)

and inorganic constituents (e.g. calcium, potassium,

nitrogen, silica, aluminium, magnesium and sodium).

Further work concluded that crude ´Sila¯jatu is composed

upwards of 80% humus, decaying plant material

acted upon by bacteria and fungi, and most

notably, fulvic and humic acids. Recent analysis has

yielded the presence of biphenyl metabolites, including

´Sila¯jatu, ‘to become like stone’

OTHER NAMES: Girija (S); Shilajita (H); Perangyum (T); Mineral pitch (E)

274 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

a benzocoumarin and low-molecular-weight oxygenated

dibenzo--pyrones, as well as triterpenes, phenolic

lipids, and additional trace minerals including

antimony, cobalt, copper, iron, lithium, manganese,

molybdenum, phosphorous, strontium and zinc (Bucci

2000, Ghosal et al 1988, Nadkarni 1954, Phillips

1997, Tillotson 2001).

Medical research:

● In vivo: nootropic (Jaiswal & Bhattacharya 1992;

Schliebs et al 1997); anxiolytic (Jaiswal &

Bhattacharya 1992); antiwithdrawal (Tiwari et al

2001); hypolipidaemic, hypoglycaemic (Trivedi

et al 2001); anti-ulcerogenic (Goel et al 1990);

anti-inflammatory (Goel et al 1990).

Toxicity: Tradition states that humans first became

aware of the benefits of ´Sila¯jatu by watching wild animals

such as monkeys utilise it as a food source.

´Sila¯jatu is generally regarded as being quite safe,

but crude unprocessed ´Sila¯jatu may contain mycotoxins

from contaminating fungi such as Aspergillus niger,

A. ochraceous and Trichothecium roseum. Unprocessed

´Sila¯jatu may also contain free radicals in the humic

constituents that increase in concentration with an

increasing pH, and thus certain sources of ´Sila¯jatu that

tend to have a higher pH, such as that obtained from

Russia, may be a less desirable source (Phillips 1997).

Indications: Dyspepsia, constipation, intestinal parasites,

haemorrhoids, hepatits, bronchitis, asthma,

consumption, skin diseases, kidney diseases, anaemia,

diabetes, obesity, infertility, exhaustion, epilepsy, psychosis,

wounds, fractures, arthritis, cancer, ageing.

Contraindications: Caraka states that ´Sila¯jatu is

contraindicated with dietary articles that are heavy in

nature or promote burning sensations, and with the

legume Kulattha (Dolichos biflorus, horse gram) and

the meat of Kapota (pigeon) (Sharma & Dash 1988).

Medicinal uses: ´Sila¯jatu is an exception to every

other entry in this text in that it is not directly derived

from botanical sources, but its ubiquitous usage

among A¯ yurvedic physicians makes it important to

include. ´Sila¯jatu is considered to be an important

rasa¯yana, used both therapeutically in the treatment

of a wide number of conditions, to prevent illness and

to ward off the effects of old age. As mentioned, there

are a variety of types of ´Sila¯jatu, and among them

the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa states that lauha ´Sila¯jatu is

best; this is black in colour, has an odour resembling

cow’s urine, and a salty, pungent and bitter taste

(Srikanthamurthy 2001). Crude ´Sila¯jatu, however,

is not considered fit for use as a medicament, and

a variety of processing techniques are mentioned in

the extant texts to both purify it and modify its therapeutic

properties. According to both the Cakradatta

and the ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯ the crude ´Sila¯jatu

is powdered and then macerated in hot water (or

a decoction of Triphala) for several hours. The maceration

is then filtered and the liquid collected in an

earthen plate and exposed to the sun until a scum

begins to form on the surface. This scum is then

skimmed off the surface of the liquid and dried in the

sun until it forms a hard mass (Sharma 2002,

Srikanthamurthy 1984). This substance is now considered

to be pure and can be processed further or

‘impregnated’ by macerating the ´Sila¯jatu in the

decoction of different dravyas chosen specifically for

their medicinal activities in particular diseases. The

Caraka sam. hita¯ states the ´Sila¯jatu should be soaked

in this decoction and dried in the sun each day for

7 days, then combined with lauha bhasma (purifed

iron) and consumed with cow’s milk (Sharma & Dash

1988). Many commercial sources of ´Sila¯jatu probably

do not undergo such traditional processing techniques,

but may be standardised to fulvic acid and

dibenzo--pyrone content, which many researchers

consider to be the active constituents. ´Sila¯jatu is perhaps

best known as a treatment for madhumeha (diabetes

mellitus), and for this purpose the As.t.

a¯ñga

Hr. daya recommends that it be macerated in a decoction

of herbs from the Asana¯d.igan. a group of

dravyas (represented by Asana), used to reduce

kapha, diabetes and obesity (Srikanthamurthy

1995). This preparation is taken as part of the diet,

along with the meat of desert animals and aged rice,

in combination with rigorous exercise. Another commonly

used approach in the treatment of diabetes is to

combine ´Sila¯jatu with herbs such as Triphala and

Gud.u¯cı¯. Its rich mineral content and sandha¯nı¯ya

(‘healing’) properties also makes ´Sila¯jatu a good

choice when treating musculoskeletal disorders, from

osteoarthritis to osteoporosis. It is also used as a specific

in the treatment of paralysis, the Cakradatta

recommending a combination of ´Sila¯jatu, Guggulu

and Pippalı¯ with a decoction of Da´samu¯la (Sharma

´Sila¯jatu, ‘to become like stone’ 275

2002). ´Sila¯jatu can be used in any disease, however,

and as a rasa¯yana has a special ability to treat deficiency

conditions, including reproductive problems. It

can be used as an adjunct to the primary treatment of

conditions such as cancer, or to enhance the potency

of other medicaments. The Caraka sam. hita¯ recommends

that the truly excellent benefits of ´Sila¯jatu are

only obtained when it is consumed at the appropriate

dosage levels each day for at least 7 weeks (Sharma &

Dash 1988).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 1–48 g b.i.d.–t.i.d. The Caraka sam. hita¯

states that the lowest potency dose for purified and

impregnated ´Sila¯jatu is one kars.

a (12 g) (Sharma

& Dash 1988), but many modern A¯ yurvedic practitioners

can be observed to use much lower doses,

closer to 2–3 g twice daily.

REFERENCES

Bucci LR 2000 Selected herbals and human exercise performance.

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72(2):624S–636S

Ghosal S, Singh SK, Kumar Y et al 1988 Anti-ulcerogenic activity of

fulvic acids and 4′-methoxy–6-carbomethoxybiphenyl isolated

from Shilajit. Phytotherapy Research 2:187–191

Goel RK, Banerjee RS, Acharya SB 1990 Antiulcerogenic and antiinflammatory

studies with shilajit. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology 29(1):95–103

Jaiswal AK, Bhattacharya SK 1992 Effects of shilajit on memory,

anxiety and brain monoamines in rats. Indian Journal of

Pharmacology 24:12–17

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by AK

Nadkarni, vol 2. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 28–32

Phillips P 1997 Unearthing the evidence. Chemistry in Britain

33(3):32–34. Available: http://www.chemsoc.org/chembytes/

ezine/1997/phillips.htm

Schliebs R, Liebmann A, Bhattacharya SK et al 1997 Systemic

administration of defined extracts from Withania somnifera

(Indian Ginseng) and Shilajit differentially affects cholinergic

but not glutamatergic and GABAergic markers in rat brain.

Neurochemistry International 30(2):181–190

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta: Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 243, 644, 647

Sharma RK, Dash B 1988 Agnivesa’s Caraka Sam. hita¯: text with

English translation and critical exposition based on Cakrapani

Datta’s A¯ yurveda Dipika, vol. 3. Chaukhambha Orientalia,

Varanasi, p 50–54

Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯: a treatise on

Ayurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi, p 156

Srikanthamurthy KR 1995 Va¯gbhat.

a’s As.t.

a¯ñga Hr. dayam, vol 2.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 388, 403

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 344–345

Tillotson A 2001 The One Earth herbal sourcebook. Twin Streams

(Kensington), New York, p 201

Tiwari P, Ramarao P, Ghosal S 2001 Effects of Shilajit on the development

of tolerance to morphine in mice. Phytotherapy

Research 15(2):177–179

Trivedi NA, Saxena NS, Mazumdar B et al 2001 Effects of Shilajit

on blood glucose, lipid profile and vascular preparation in

alloxan induced diabetic rats. Indian Journal of Pharmacology

33:124–145

276 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany: ´Syona¯ka is a small to medium-sized tree

between 7.5 and 12 m in height, with a soft, light

brown bark with numerous corky lenticels that

exudes a green juice when cut. The leaves are two to

three times pinnately compound, with five of more

pairs of primary pinnae, the leaflets ovate or elliptic,

acuminate, glabrous and rounded or cordate at the

base. The flowers are numerous, borne in large erect

racemes, the campanulate corolla purplish to reddish

purple outside and pinkish within, giving way to flattened

woody seed capsules up to 1 m long, each containing

numerous flattened winged seeds. The

common name ‘midnight horror’ is probably in reference

to the fact that the flowers tend to open at night

and have a distinctly foul smell. O. indicum is found

throughout India in moist deciduous forests, as well as

in China and SE Asia, and may be found in other

locales as a garden plant or in the wild as an escapee

(Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1994).

Part used: Roots, bark, leaves, flowers, seeds.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: madhura tikta, ka´sa¯ya, kat.u (root); tikta,

kat.u, ka´sa¯ya (bark); madhura, ka´sa¯ya (unripe

fruit); madhura, kat.u (ripe fruit)

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: ´sita

● Karma: gra¯hı ¯, chardinigrahan.

a, kr.

mighna, jvaraghna,

chedana, ka¯sahara, sva¯sahara, mu¯travirecana, ´sotahara,

svedana, kus.t.aghna, vedana¯stha¯pana, sandha¯nı ¯ya,

tridos.aghna (root); pa¯cana, vedan-a¯stha¯pana, va¯takopa

(leaf); dı ¯panapa¯cana, kr.mighna, chedana, ka¯sahara,

sva¯sahara, hr . daya, va¯takaphahara (unripe fruit);

pa¯cana, kr. mighna, hr . daya (mature fruit); recana

(mature seed) (Dash 1991, Kirtikar & Basu 1935,

Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1995).

Constituents: The limited amount of chemical

research conducted on O. indicum indicates the presence

of flavones including scutellarein, baicalein,

oroxinden, oroxylin A and B and chrysin. Other constituents

include the ursolic acid, benzoic acid, several

naphthalene related compounds, -sitosterol, an

isoflavone, terpenes, alkaloids, saponins and tannin

(Chen et al 2003, Jiwajinda et al 2002, Kapoor 1990,

Kizu et al 1994)

Medical research:

● In vitro: antioxidant (Jiwajinda et al 2002),

immunostimulant (Laupattarakasem et al 2003),

antitumour (Nakahara et al 2001, 2002)

Toxicity: No data found. Products that contain

´Syona¯ka may be adulterated with other species.

Indications: Anorexia, vomiting, dyspepsia, ulcers,

hiccough, flatulent colic, diarrhoea, dysentery,

hepatosplenomegaly, intestinal parasites, haemorrhoids,

fever, cough, bronchitis, asthma, strangury,

oedema, gout, rheumatoid arthritis, neuralgia,

headache, sprains, wounds.

Contraindications: Constipation (root).

Medicinal uses: ´Syona¯ka root is perhaps best known

as an ingredient in the Da´samu¯la or ‘ten roots’ formula,

but is also found in the famous confection

Cyavanapra¯´sa, and in Na¯ra¯yan.

a taila. Apart from

being a useful medicinal plant, however, traditional

peoples across SE Asia eat the young shoots and

unripe fruits. ´Syona¯ka root, bark and leaf is an impor-

´Syona¯

ka

BOTANICAL NAME: Oroxylum indicum, Bignoniaceae

OTHER NAMES: Tuntukah (S); Shyona, Sonapatha, Arlu, Pharkhat (H);

Palakappayyani, Payyalanta (T); Indian Trumpet tree, Midnight Horror, Tree

of Damocles (E); Mu Hu Die (seed) (C)

´Syona¯ka 277

tant remedy for inflammation of the digestive tract,

such as vomiting, ulceration or diarrhoea, used by

itself as the freshly collected bark juice or a cold infusion

of the root bark powder, or in combination with

herbs such as Mustaka, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯ and Yava¯nı¯.

´Syona¯ka stem bark is also mentioned as a diaphoretic

in fever and rheumatic pain (Nadkarni 1954). The

fruit specifically is used as an expectorant in Unani

medicine (Kirtikar & Basu 1935). The Cakradatta

mentions ´Syona¯ka among several other plants

included in the Virataradi group, used in the treatment

of urinary calculi and dysuria (Sharma 2002).

In the treatment of otalgia caused by any of the three

dos.as the ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯ recommends

a medicated oil prepared from the roots of ´Syona¯ka,

instilled into the ear (Srikanthamurthy 1984). One

researcher reports an apparent cure from nasopharyngeal

cancer by use of a decoction of the bark, 1 kg

per 5 L of water decocted for 30–40 min, taken in

three equal doses with honey on a daily basis. After

administration the patient was free of pain within

2 weeks, and despite being considered a terminal case,

is reported to be living free of symptoms today (Mao

2002). In Chinese medicine the seeds of O. indicum are

used to moisten the lungs in the treatment of pharyngitis,

cough and hoarseness, to alleviate constrained

liver qi, and to promote healing of suppurative ulcers

(Bensky & Gamble 1993).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 2–15 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 30–60 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: dried root, 1:3, 40%; 2–5 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Bensky D, Gamble A 1993 Chinese herbal medicine materia

medica, revised edn. Eastland Press, Seattle, p 206

Chen LJ, Games DE, Jones J 2003 Isolation and identification of four

flavonoid constituents from the seeds of Oroxylum indicum by

high-speed counter-current chromatography. Journal of

Chromatography (A) 988(1):95–105

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New

Delhi, p 18

Jiwajinda S, Santisopasri V, Murakami A et al 2002 Suppressive

effects of edible Thai plants on superoxide and nitric oxide

generation. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention

3(3):215–223

Kapoor LD 1990 CRC handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants.

CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 252

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1839

Kizu H, Habe S, Ishida M, Tomimori T 1994 Studies on the Nepalese

crude drugs. XVII. On the naphthalene related compounds

from the root bark of Oroxylum indicum. Yakugaku Zasshi

11(7):492–513

Laupattarakasem P, Houghton PJ, Hoult JR, Itharat A 2003 An

evaluation of the activity related to inflammation of four

plants used in Thailand to treat arthritis. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology 85(2–3):207–215

Mao AA 2002 Oroxylum indicum Vent.: a potential anticancer

medicinal plant. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge

1(1):17–21

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by AK

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 876

Nakahara K, Onishi-Kameyama M, Ono H et al 2001

Antimutagenic activity against trp-P–1 of the edible Thai

plant, Oroxylum indicum vent. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and

Biochemistry 65(10):2358–2360

Nakahara K, Trakoontivakorn G, Alzoreky NS et al 2002

Antimutagenicity of some edible Thai plants, and a bioactive

carbazole alkaloid, mahanine, isolated from Micromelum minutum.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

50(17):4796–4802

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 317

Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯: a treatise on

Ayurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi, p 251

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 231–232

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1995 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 4. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 186–190

278 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany: Trivr.

t is a stout perennial climber that

exudes a milky juice when cut, with long fleshy roots,

and long twisting pubescent stems that are angled,

winged and become very tough and brown when old.

The leaves are simple, pubescent on both sides, and

variable in shape, cordate or truncate at the base, subacute,

5–10 cm long by 1.3–7 cm wide. The flowers

are white, tubular-campanulate, sepals long, borne in

cymes of a few flowers, giving way to globose capsules

enclosed within overlapping brittle sepals. Trivr.

t is

found throughout India up to 900 m in elevation, as

well as in S.E. Asia, Australia, tropical Africa and it

can also be found as an invasive weed in the Americas.

The Sanskrit name Trivr.

t or ‘thricely twisted’ probably

refers to the twining habit of this plant (Kirtikar &

Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1995).

Part used: Roots.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: tikta, kat.u, madhura

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a, ru¯ks.

a

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, bhedana, ´sulapra´samana,

virecana, kr . mighna, jvaraghna, chedana, pittakaphahara

(Dash 1991, Kirtikar & Basu 1935,

Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1995).

Constituents: Trivr.

t is stated to contain a resin comprising

upwards of 9–13% of the crude herb, itself composed

of a mixture of the glycosides - and -terpethin

and terpethinic acids A–E. Other constituents in the

herb include scopoletin and other coumarins, rhamnose,

fucose, betulin, lupeol, -sitosterol and glucose

(Kapoor 1990, Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vivo: anti-inflammatory (Kapoor 1990).

Toxicity: No data found.

Indications: Dyspepsia, constipation, flatulent colic,

haemorrhoids, jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly, intestinal

parasites, intermittent fever, bronchitis, itching

skin, leucoderma, oedema, ascites, myalgia, arthritis,

paralysis, obesity, tumours.

Contraindications: Pregnancy, diarrhoea, dysentery,

active gastrointestinal inflammation; va¯takopa.

Medicinal uses: Trivr.t is among the most important

purgatives in the Indian material medica, although

there is some debate as to its botanical origin. The

Madanapala nighan.t.

u, for example, lists two varieties:

´Svetatrivr. t (‘white’ Trivr.

t, O. turpethum) and

Krishnatrivr. t (‘black’ Trivr.

t, Ipomoea petaloideschois),

the former being a mild and efficacious purgative,

and the latter a violent purgative that irritates the

mucosa and is used to restore consciousness and treat

states of intoxication (Srikanthamurthy 2001).

Generally speaking, the term Trivr.

t refers to ´Svetatrivr.

t, which is a safe and efficacious purgative in

pitta and kaphaja conditions, as well as in virecana

in pañca karma, but is stated in several texts to be

contraindicated in va¯ttika conditions. Texts such as

the Cakradatta, however, state that Trivr.

t is an

important remedy in the treatment of va¯ttika conditions

such as uda¯varta, or the upward movement of

va¯ta, but is typically combined with botanicals such

as Triphala, Pippalı¯, Harı¯takı¯, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Ajamodika,

Tvak, and Hin.gu, as well anupa¯na including saindhava,

sugar and honey. For constipation with dry

faeces and flatus the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa recommends

Na¯raca cu¯rn.

a, comprising powdered sugar, Trivr.

t

and Pippalı¯ (Srikanthamurthy 2000). Another

Trivr.

t, ‘thricely twisted’

BOTANICAL NAMES: Operculina turpethum, Convolvulaceae

OTHER NAMES: Nishoth, Tarbud (H); Shivatai, Kumbham (T); Indian Jalap,

Indian Rhubarb, St Thomas Lidpod (E)

Trivr.

t, ‘thricely twisted’ 279

preparation is Trivr.

t lehyam, prepared by decocting

the roots of Trivr.

t and then adding powdered sugar,

Trivr.

t cu¯rn.

a and Trisugandha¯ cu¯rn.

a (‘three aromatics’,

i.e. Ela¯, Tvak, Patra) (Nadkarni 1954). In

the treatment of grahan. ı¯, or malabsorption syndromes,

the Cakradatta recommends Kalya

¯n. agud.a, a lehya prepared by decocting 320 g of

Trivr.

t cu¯rn.

a with 320 g of sesame oil, 2 kg of jaggery,

and 1.92 L of fresh A¯ malakı¯ juice, along with 40 g

each of Pippalı¯mu¯la, Jı¯raka, Cavya, Gajapippalı¯,

Trikat.u, Hapus.a¯, Ajamoda¯, Vid.

an.ga, Triphala,

Yava¯nı¯, Pa¯t.ha¯, Citraka, Dha¯nyaka and saindhava.

This is decocted until it is reduced to a thick jam-like

consistency, mixed with 40 g each Ela¯, Tvak and

Patra (Trisugandha¯ cu¯rn.

a), and is taken in doses

of about 10 g. Cakrapani states that this remedy

enhances digestion, promotes proper absorption,

relieves cough, dyspnoea and oedema, and is useful in

female infertility (Sharma 2002). In the treatment of

intestinal parasites Trivr.

t is a common and popular

remedy, taken with herbs such as Vid.

an.ga, Triphala

and Dañtı¯. In the treatment of paittika pa¯n.d.

u, a disease

often translated as ‘anaemia’ but in this instance

referring more to symptoms of jaundice and hepatic

dysfunction, the Cakradatta recommends Trivr.

t

cu¯rn.

a mixed with double its quantity of jaggery, taken

in doses of 20 g (Sharma 2002). Trivr.

t is similarly

mentioned in the nighan.t.

us, as well as by more

modern commentators, as being beneficial in

hepatosplenomegaly (udara roga), ascites and cirrhosis

(Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Sharma 2002).

Combined with equal parts cu¯rn.

a of the dehusked

seeds of Vid.

an.ga, along with Trikat.u, Citraka, and

Dañtı¯, Trivr.

t is mixed with jaggery and formed into

pills and taken with hot water, used in the treatment of

colic and flatulence caused by tridos.a (Sharma

2002). Mixed with Triphala, Pippalı¯, jaggery and

honey Trivr.

t is recommended in raktapitta, or

innate haemorrhage (Sharma 2002). Prepared as

a medicated ghr. ta Trivr. t is used in the treatment of

sciatica (Sharma 2002). Trivr.

t also finds its way into

formulations used to treat psychosis and epilepsy,

particularly when pitta symptoms are manifest.

Mixed with botanicals such as Nimba, Haridra¯

and Yas.t.

imadhu, Trivr.

t is stated to be sandha¯nı¯ya,

useful to cleanse wounds and promote healing

(Sharma 2002).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–7 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 30–90 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Dash, B. 1991. Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers,

New Delhi, p 38–39

Kapoor LD 1990 CRC handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants.

CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 251

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1730–1731

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by AK

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 693

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 72, 113, 121, 202, 270, 342, 395

Srikanthamurthy KR 2000 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bh¯avami´sra, vol. 2.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 435

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 258–259

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1995 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 4. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 172–178

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 386

280 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany: U´sı¯ra is a densely tufted perennial grass

attaining a height of up to 2 m, with a branching rhizome

and spongy aromatic roots, the smaller dissected

rootlets providing a higher percentage of essential oil.

The leaves are narrow, linear, erect and acute, with

compressed sheaths. The inflorescence is borne in sessile

and pedicelled spikelets, arranged in a panicle of

slender racemes, with each fertilised flower giving rise

to an oblong grain. U´sı¯ra is found throughout India,

SE Asia and China, in wetlands and plains up to

1200 m in elevation, and is cultivated in other tropical

and subtropical regions including Australia, Africa

and South America, as well as in and Mediterraneantype

climates including Spain, Italy and southern

California. The Sanskrit name U´sı¯ra is derived from

the root word U´si, referring to an ancient people that

used to live in North India. Today U´sı¯ra is found either

as a fertile wild variety that originally hails from

northern India or as a predominantly infertile domesticated

variety that is propagated by rhizome in southern

India. Apart from its medicinal usage, U´sı¯ra is

widely used for erosion control, soil conservation,

reclaiming saline and acid sulfate soils, mine rehabilitation,

and trapping industrial chemicals used in

farming (Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Liao & Luo 2002,

Pang et al 2003, Sethi et al 1986, Warrier et al 1996,

Yang et al 2003).

Part used: Roots.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: tikta, madhura

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: ´sita, laghu

● Karma: pa¯cana, stambhana, chardinigrahan. a,

jvaraghna, chedana, mu¯travirecana, mu¯travi´sodhana,

kus.t.

haghna, da¯hapra´samana, raktaprasa¯dana,

´son. itastha¯pana, vis.aghna, va¯tapittahara (Dash 1991,

Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Srikanthamurthy 2001,

Warrier et al 1996).

Constituents: There is little constituent information

for U´sı¯ra with the exception of the essential oil,

which is obtained by steam distillation. The essential

oil is dark brown, olive or amber, with a deep smoky,

earthy-woody odour and a sweet persistent undertone.

The chemistry of the essential oil is exceedingly

complex, including over 150 different

sesquiterpenoids such as -vetivone, -vetivone, and

khusinol, which are often used as chemical markers

for the oil. Other constituents in the essential oil

include -amorphene, -vetivenene, khusimone,

zizanal, epizizanol and bicyclo-vetivenol (Duke

2003, Lawless 1995, Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research: No data found.

Toxicity: No data found.

Indications: Nausea and vomiting, gastric reflux, dyspepsia,

diarrhoea, flatulent colic, intestinal parasites,

fever, burning sensations, extreme thirst, cough, bronchitis,

asthma, haemoptysis, epistaxis, dysuria, urethritis,

cystitis, skin diseases, ulceration, haemorrhage,

migraines, inflammatory joint disease, lumbago,

sprains, halitosis, epilepsy, rage, mania, amenorrhoea,

dysmenorrhoea.

Contraindications: Pregnancy.

Medicinal uses: U´sı¯ra has long been valued in India

as a fragrant herb with cooling properties, indicated by

its synonyms Sugandhimu¯la, or ‘fragrant root’, and

´Sitamulaka or ‘cooling root’. The Tamil name Vettiver

refers to the highly dissected rooting structure.

Although the medicinal properties of the wild and

U´sı¯ra

BOTANICAL NAME: Vetiveria zizanioides, Poaceae

OTHER NAMES: Sevyah, Sugandhimula, ´Sitamulaka, Viranamula (S); Khas,

Ganrar, Panni (H); Vettiver, Viranam (T); Vetiver, Khus (E)

U´sı¯ra 281

cultivated varietals are essentially the same, the wildsource

essential oil is slightly different and is typically

held in higher regard, and as a result is more expensive

and more difficult to obtain commercially. The distinctly

smoky, woody and earthy aroma of Vetivert, or

Khus oil, has long been valued in perfumery, by itself or

as a fixative to balance the etheric and deep notes of

various perfume blends. Given its earthy and woody

scent, Khus oil combines particularly well with oils

such as Patchouli, Cinnamon, Sandalwood and Ylang-

Ylang, and can be used in aromatherapy to treat

va¯ttika disorders including anxiety, depression and

seizures. The essential oil can also be applied topically

over the head to relieve migraines and headaches, and

in carrier oil in the treatment of joint inflammation,

rheumatism and sprains. The aerial portions of U´sı¯ra

are traditionally used to weave baskets and mats in

India, the latter of which are hung over windows and

sprinkled with water in the hot weather, causing it to

release some of its volatile constituents, and thus providing

a unique form of air-conditioning. As a medicinal

agent, U´sı¯ra is pleasant and aromatic with a

cooling energy, and thus finds particular application in

conditions of heat, including burning sensations, fever,

inflammation and irritability. In the digestive tract,

U´sı¯ra is used in the treatment of vomiting, bilious dyspepsia,

gastric and duodenal ulceration, diarrhoea and

dysentery, all marked by irritability and inflammation.

Reduced to a powder and prepared as a cold infusion

with Mustaka, Candana, Parpat.a, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯ and

Udı¯cya, U´sı¯ra is used in the treatment of paittika

fever, burning sensations, vomiting and thirst (Sharma

2002). Prepared as a paste with Candana, Bala¯ka,

´Su¯n.t.

hı¯ and Va¯saka, U´sı¯ra is taken with honey and

rice water in the treatment of vomiting (Sharma

2002). In the treatment of poor digestion and weakness

of appetite, a¯ma, and diarrhoea associated with

severe pain and haemorrhage, the Cakradatta recommends

U´sı¯ra¯di cu¯rn.

a, composed of equal parts U´sı¯ra,

Bala¯ka, Mustaka, Dha¯nyaka, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Lajja¯lu,

Dha¯taki, Lodhra and Bilva (Sharma 2002). In severe

thirst caused by a vitiation of pitta, U´sı¯ra is prepared

as a cold infusion along with Ghambari fruit,

Candana, Padmaka, Dra¯ks.

a¯, Yas.t.

imadhu and

powdered sugar (Sharma 2002). Combined with equal

parts Du¯rva¯, Kumuda stamens, Mañjis.t.

ha¯,

Elava¯luka, Candana, Mustaka, Raktacandana

and Padmaka, U´sı¯ra is decocted in ghr. ta prepared

from goat’s milk, rice water and goat’s milk until only

the ghr. ta remains. This formula is stated by the

Cakradatta as being efficacious in the vomiting of

blood and epistaxis when taken internally, and is

applied locally in passive haemorrhage (Sharma

2002). In burning sensations throughout the body the

Cakradatta recommends a cool bath prepared with

the powders of U´sı¯ra, Bala¯ka, Padmaka and

Candana (Sharma 2002). U´sı¯ra is also used topically

as a cu¯rn.

a, rubbed into the skin to remove foul odours,

and when mixed with herbs such as Yas.t.

imadhu,

Triphala, Da¯ruharidra¯ and Nı¯lotpala is used in the

treatment of chicken pox (Sharma 2002). In the treatment

of epilepsy U´sı¯ra can be reduced to a powder and

prepared as an incense along with botanicals such as

Vaca¯ and Kus.

t.

ha to prevent seizure (Sharma 2002).

Prepared as a decoction with Nimba, A¯ malakı¯ and

Harı¯takı¯, the Cakradatta states that U´sı¯ra is effective

in the treatment of paittika prameha, a disease characterised

by polyuria with a deep coloured urine that

has a foul smell, pain in the bladder and genitalia,

burning sensations, gastric reflux, and diarrhoea

(Sharma 2002). The ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯ recommends

U´sı¯rasava, a fermented beverage that contains

many constituents including U´sı¯ra, in the treatment of

innate haemorrhage, skin diseases, diabetes, intestinal

parasites and oedema (Srikanthamurthy 1984). U´sı¯ra

is also found as an important constituent in Yogara¯ja

guggulu.

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Hima: 60–120 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: fresh rootlets, 1:2, 95%; 2–5 mL

b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New

Delhi, p 175

Duke JA (accessed 2003) Chemicals. In: Vetiveria zizanioides (L.)

NASH (Poaceae) -Cus-Cus, Cuscus Grass, Vetiver. Dr Duke’s

phytochemical and ethnobotanical databases. Agricultural

Research Service (ARS), United States Department of

Agriculture. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/

plants.html

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 2671–2672

Lawless J 1995 The illustrated encyclopedia of essential oils.

Element, Rockport MA, p 234

Liao X, Luo S 2002 Effects of constructed wetlands on treating with

nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater from hoggery. Ying

Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao 13(6):719–722

282 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by AK

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay

Pang J, Chan GS, Zhang J et al 2003 Physiological aspects of vetiver

grass for rehabilitation in abandoned metalliferous mine

wastes. Chemosphere 52(9):1559–1570

Sethi KL, Maheshwari ML, Srivastava VK, Gupta R 1986 Natural

variability in Vetiveria zizaniodes collections from Bharatpur,

part 1. Indian Perfumer 30(2–3):377–380

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 3, 13, 45, 126, 168, 172, 183,

192, 326, 338, 471

Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯: a treatise on

Ayurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi, p 139

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 220

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1996 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 5. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 361

Yang B, Shu WS, Ye ZH et al 2003 Growth and metal accumulation

in vetiver and two Sesbania species on lead/zinc mine tailings.

Chemosphere 52(9):1593–1600

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 577

Vaca¯, ‘to speak’ 283

Botany: Vaca¯ is a perennial plant with a creeping rhizome

about the thickness of a finger, with numerous

rootlets, the cortex brown to pinkish brown, the

medulla white and spongy. The long, narrow swordlike

leathery leaves are bright green, whitish pink at

the base, sheathing, up to 1.8m in length, thickened

along the midrib, the other parallel veins barely visible,

the margins wavy and the tip acute. The greenish

yellow flowers are small, densely packed into a sessile

cylindrical spadix about 10 cm long. The entire plant

has a characteristic cinnamon-like aroma. The fruits

are oblong turbinate berries with a pyramidal top,

mostly lacking seeds. Vaca¯ is found throughout India

in wet marshy locations up to elevations of about

1800 m, and is similarly found in other parts of

Eurasia and Africa, and has since been introduced into

North America. Although A. calamus is one of only

three species that are generally recognised as being

members of the Acoraceae (i.e. A. calamus, A.

gramineus, and recently, A. americanus), botanists have

further classified A. calamus based upon the number of

pairs of chromosomes (n) found in each genetic

species, including hexaploid (6n), tetraploid (4n),

triploid (3n) or diploid (2n). The Eurasian genetic

species of A. calamus is stated as being hexaploid,

tetraploid or triploid, and is infertile, only reproducing

by vegetative means. Dilpoid genetic species of A. calamus,

as well as the very similar A. americanus native to

North America are stated to be fertile and reproduce

both by seed and rhizome (Kirtikar & Basu 1935,

Larry 1973, Warrier et al 1994).

Part used: rhizome and rootlets, best harvested in

June (Li & Jiang 1994).

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: kat.u, tikta

● Vipa¯ka: laghu

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a

● Karma: vamana, a¯syasravan. a, dı ¯panapa¯cana, anulomana,

´sulapra´samana, kr . mighna, chedana, ka¯sahara,

sva¯sahara, mu¯travirecana, a¯rtavajanana, medhya,

va¯takaphahara

● Prabha¯va: Vaca¯ is said to stimulate the power of

self-expression and to enhance intelligence (Dash

1991, Frawley & Lad 1986, Nadkarni 1954,

Warrier et al 1994).

Constituents: Vaca¯ is noted for its delightfully sweet

and pleasing fragrance, a feature of its essential oil,

which includes a great variety of constituents including

-asarone and -asarone, as well as elemicine, cisisoelemecine,

cis and trans eugenol and their methyl

esters, camphene, p-cymene, -gurjunene, -selinene,

-candinene, camphor, -terpineol, -calacorene, azulene,

calamenene, limonene, linalol, menthol, methylchavicol,

sabinene and many others. The potentially

toxic -asarone is stated as being present in all varieties

except for the diploid (2n) genetic species and the native

North American (2n) species (A. americanus). Hexaploid

species from Kashmir and the triploid European species,

however, can contain as little as 5–10% -asarone, but

the tetraploid species most commonly found in India can

contain upwards of 75% -asarone. In regard to the

other constituents in Vaca¯ there is little information:

bitter glycosides acorin and acoretin, the flavonoid

galangin, the alkaloid choline, oxalic acid, mucilage,

resins and tannins (Duke 1985, 2003, Kapoor 1990,

Lander & Schreier 1990; Larry 1973; Vashist & Handa

1964; Williamson et al 2002).

Medical research:

● In vitro: immunomodulant (Mehrotra et al 2003),

antibacterial (Jain et al 1974), nematocidal

(Sugimoto et al 1995).

● In vivo: negatively inotropic/chronotropic (Pancal

et al 1989), antispasmodic (Das et al 1962, Opdyke

Vaca¯, ‘to speak’

BOTANICAL NAME: Acorus calamus, Acoraceae

OTHER NAMES: Ugragandha¯ (S); Bach (H); Vashampu (T); Sweet Flag (E)

284 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

1977), CNS depressant (Opdyke 1977; Pancal et al

1989); neuroprotective (Shukla et al 2002); antiulcerogenic

(Rafatullah et al 1994); hypolipidaemic

(Parab & Mengi 2002).

Toxicity: Feeding studies in rats using the volatile oil

of the Asian species of A. calamus has resulted in

growth inhibition, hepatic and cardiac abnormalities,

serous effusion in abdominal and/or peritoneal cavities,

and death (Gross et al 1967; Taylor et al 1967).

The LD50 for the volatile oil of the Asian species is 777

mg/kg (rat, oral), less than 5 g/kg (guinea pig, dermal),

and 221 mg/kg (rat, intraperitoneal). The oil is

generally considered to be non-irritating, but is

reported to have caused cases of erythema and dermatitis

in sensitive individuals (Opdyke 1977).

Indications: Toothache, dyspepsia, hiatus hernia, gastritis,

flatulent colic, irritable bowel syndrome, colitis,

dysentery, intestinal parasites, upper respiratory tract

viral infections, intermittent fever, cough, bronchitis,

asthma, sinus headaches, sinusitis, hay fever, urolithiasis,

inflammatory joint disease, gout, amenorrhoea,

dysmenorrhoea, epilepsy, convulsions, hysteria,

depression, shock, loss of memory, deafness, neuralgia,

numbness, eczema, general debility.

Contraindications: Caution should be used with the

concomitant use of A. calamus with benzodiazepines,

barbiturates, MAO inhibitors and anticonvulsants

(Opdyke 1977). A. calamus is an emetic in large doses,

and should be avoided in pre-existing cases of nausea

and vomiting, and for this reason is also contraindicated

in pregnancy. Care should be taken to avoid the use of

the Asian (3n, 4n, 6n) species in patients with liver dysfunction,

owing to its -asarone content (Weiss 1988).

Medicinal uses: Across the world Calamus is

regarded as a useful bitter-tasting aromatic stomachic,

used most commonly in the treatment of disorders

marked by coldness, catarrh and spasm, particularly

in afflictions of the digestive tract including dyspepsia

and bowel spasm. The German physician Rudolf Weiss

(1988) considered Calamus to have a “powerful tonic

effect on the stomach, encouraging its secretory activity”,

further adding that he has “seen it used to very

satisfactory effect in stomach cancer patients . . . for

symptomatic treatment”. A¯ yurvedic medicine, too,

confirms the efficacy of Vaca¯ in digestive disorders,

given simply as an infusion or decoction in the treatment

of dyspepsia, flatulence and diarrhoea, or in

complex polyherbal formulations. In the treatment of

kaphaja colic the Cakradatta recommends Musta¯di

cu¯rn.

a, composed of the powders of Vaca¯, Mustaka,

Kat.uka, Harı¯takı¯ and Mu¯rva¯ (Sharma 2002). In the

treatment of uda¯varta, which is the upward movement

of apa¯na va¯yu causing symptoms including

abdominal distension, constipation and dyspnoea, the

powders of one part Hin.gu, two parts Kus.

t.

ha, four

parts Vaca¯, eight parts ´Sat.ı¯, and 16 parts Vid.

a

lavan.

a (black salt) are mixed with wine and taken

internally (Sharma 2002). In the treatment of gulma

or abdominal tumours the Cakradatta recommends

Vaca¯dya cu¯rn.

a, consisting of equal parts Vaca¯,

Harı¯takı¯, Hin.gu, Amlavetasa, Yava¯nı¯, Yavaks.a¯ra

and saindhava, taken with warm water (Sharma

2002). Combined with Nimba, Haridra¯, Citraka,

Kat.uka and purified Ativis.a¯, Vaca¯ is used in

kaphaja fever (Sharma 2002). Combined with

Mustaka, Devada¯ru, purified Ativis.a¯ and

Indrayava, Vaca¯ is used in diarrhoea produced by

va¯ta and pitta (Sharma 2002). Combined with

Pippalı¯, Bilva, Kus.

t.

ha, Citraka, Devada¯ru,

Yas.t.

imadhu, ´Satapus.pa¯, Madana, ´Sat.ı¯ and

Pus.karamu¯la, Vaca¯ is decocted in oil and milk until

all the milk has evaporated to create a medicated oil

that is taken internally in the treatment of va¯ttika

haemorrhoids, as well as in rectal prolapse, dysentery,

dysuria, lumbago and lower back weakness (Sharma

2002). Beyond its usage in digestive disorders, Vaca¯

has other applications, taken alone or in combination

with Yas.t.

imadhu in the treatment of cough, bronchitis

and sore throats (Nadkarni 1954). Vaca¯ is also

used in the treatment of gout and skin diseases caused

by va¯ta and kapha, the Cakradatta recommending

a combination of equal parts Vaca¯, A¯ malakı¯,

Harı¯takı¯, Bibhı¯taka, Nimba, Mañjis.t.

ha¯, Kat.uka,

Gud.u¯cı¯ and Da¯ruharidra¯ called Navaka¯rs.

ika, used

in the treatment of gout and skin diseases (Sharma

2002). In the treatment of a¯mava¯ta or inflammatory

joint disease, Vaca¯ is used in combination with

Gud.u¯cı¯, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Harı¯takı¯, Devada¯ru, purified

Ativis.a¯ and ´Sat.ı¯, along with a kapha reducing diet

(Sharma 2002). Other indications for Vaca¯ include

cardiac angina, anaemia and jaundice. In the treatment

of cardiac angina Vaca¯ is mixed with equal parts

Pippalı¯, Ela¯, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Ajamoda¯, Yavaks.a¯ra and

saindhava (Sharma 2002). Decocted with Triphala,

Vaca¯, ‘to speak’ 285

Gud.u¯cı¯, Kat.uka, Kira¯tatikta¯ and Nimba, Vaca¯ is

taken with honey in the treatment of anaemia and

jaundice (Sharma 2002).

The name Vaca¯ means ‘to speak’, referring to its

usage in apasma¯ra (epilepsy), a condition characterised

by seizure, a loss of consciousness and memory

loss, allowing the patient to regain the ability to ‘speak’

and regain normal consciousness. Used in nasya, the

‘strongly aromatic’ and tiks.n.

a properties suggested by

its synonym, Ugragandha¯, makes Vaca¯ an important

traditional remedy to restore consciousness. The

Caraka sam. hita¯ recommends Vaca¯dya ghr.

ta in the

treatment of epilepsy due to vitiated va¯ta and kapha,

made simply by decocting one part coarsely ground

Vaca¯ rhizome in four parts ghr. ta and eight parts water

until all the water has been evaporated. The resulting

preparation may be taken internally in doses of about

5 g, and/or applied in nasya (Sharma & Dash 1988). In

the treatment of convulsion and seizure Vaca¯ is taken

either as a powder or a decoction along with Harı¯takı¯,

Ra¯sna¯, Amlavetasa and saindhava, with ghr. ta

(Sharma 2002). In a similar vein, Vaca¯ is considered to

be an important remedy in unma¯da, or psychosis. The

Cakradatta recommends the fresh juice of Vaca¯,

Bra¯hmı¯, Ku¯s.ma¯n.d.

a, ´Sañkhapus.pı¯ and Kus.

t.

ha

mixed with honey, and taken internally (12–24g) as a

specific treatment for unma¯da. Combined with the

powders of Haridra¯, Kus.

t.

ha, Pippalı¯, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Jı¯raka,

Yas.t.

imadhu and saindhava, Vaca¯ cu¯rn.

a is also taken

with ghr. ta to enhance memory and remove disorders

of speech (Sharma 2002). The psychotropic properties

of Vaca¯ have also been utilised in other cultures, among

the First Nations people of North America, for example,

as well as the Moso shamans of Yunnan China, both

groups using it as a spiritual aid (Gilmore 1919;

Grinnell 1905, Hart 1981; Miller 1983, Smith 1973).

The Bible also mentions the supernatural activities of

Vaca¯, which is included as one of the constituents of a

holy unguent that God commands Moses to rub on his

body before entering the temple (Exodus 30:22–25).

The hallucinogenic properties of Vaca¯ have been attributed

to -asarone and -asarone, precursors to 1,2,4-

trimethoxy-5-propenylbenzene, a phenylethylamine

that is reported to have ten times the potency of mescaline

(Miller 1983). The hallucinogenic dose of the

whole plant, however, begins at about 25–30 g of the

fresh rhizome, and given the aromatic pungency

and potentially emetic properties of Vaca¯, it is a

difficult dosage to attain (Miller 1983). As mentioned,

the essential oil of the Asian genetic species (3n,

4n, 6n) of Vaca¯ contains variable amounts of

-asarone, which has been shown to be carcinogenic in

experimental animals. The North American (2n)

genetic species, however, does not contain -asarone

and can thus be safely used as a substitute (Weiss

1988). Too much concern over the potential carcinogenicity

of the Asian species is unwarranted, however,

as Vaca¯ has been used for millennia by peoples all

across the world, as both a medicine and a food.

Nonetheless, the chronic consumption of the Asian

species is not recommended, and should be approached

with caution in patients with a history of liver disease.

In Chinese medicine the similar but much less fragrant

A. gramineus rhizome (Shi Chang Pu) is used in much

the same way as A. calamus is used in A¯ yurvedic medicine,

to open the channels of the body, dispel phlegm

and quiet the spirit. It is also stated to harmonise the

middle burner, relieving symptoms of epigastric fullness

caused by dampness, and is used as an analgesic

remedy in joint pain and trauma caused by wind, cold

and damp (Bensky & Gamble 1993).

 

Om Tat Sat

                                                        

(Continued...) 

(My humble salutations to   Sreeman Todd Caldecott, Elsevier’s Health Sciences and others other eminent medical scholars and doctors   for the collection)