Ayurveda the divine science of life -15

Ayurveda the divine science of life

PART 1

 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

A¯

malakı¯, stated specifically to be a rasa¯yana for

kapha, useful for reducing excess medas (Dash &

Junius 1983, Frawley & Lad 1986). It is a stimulating

astringent, and has wide application in any condition

marked by atony, prolapse, catarrh or haemorrhage;

useful in the treatment of conditions such as uterine

prolapse and menorrhagia. The mature, dried fruit of

Bibhı¯taka is effective in the treatment of dysentery

and intestinal parasites but should be taken along

with purgatives such as Markandika to counteract

its constipating effects; the sun-dried unripe fruit,

however, is gently aperient and can be used on its own.

Dash & Junius (1983) state that Bibhı¯taka is a good

remedy for vomiting in pregnancy. Frawley & Lad

(1986) mention that Bibhı¯taka is a useful antilithic

in gall bladder and urinary diseases, liquefying and

expelling the stones. The Cakradatta states that the

fruit pulp mixed with ghr. ta is covered with cow dung

and heated in a fire, and held in the mouth to control

coughing (Sharma 2002). For severe cough and

asthma the cu¯rn.

a of the dried fruit may be taken with

honey (Sharma 2002). Mixed with saindhava,

Pippalı¯ and buttermilk, Bibhı¯taka is taken in

hoarseness (Sharma 2002). A decoction of the dried

fruit may be taken internally and externally as an eyewash

in the treatment of ophthalmological disorders

(Nadkarni 1954). Vaidya Mana Bhajracharya (1997)

indicates that the fresh fruit pulp is used as a collyrium

in the treatment of non-traumatic corneal ulcer.

Warrier et al (1996) mention that the oil from the

seeds is trichogenous, and can be used topically for

leucoderma and skin diseases. The kernel is typically

removed before Bibhı¯taka is used, and specifically

stated to be madaka¯rı¯ (‘narcotic’), used topically as

an analgesic in the treatment of inflammation and

pain, and internally in vomiting, bronchitis and colic

(Dash & Junius 1983, Kirtikar & Basu 1935). In

ancient India Bibhı¯taka fruits were used as a form of

dice (Sharma 1993).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 2–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 30–60 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: crushed dried fruit, 1:4, 50%; 1–3 mL

b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Anand KK, Singh B, Saxena AK et al 1997 3,4,5-Trihydroxy benzoic

acid (gallic acid), the hepatoprotective principle in the

fruits of Terminalia belerica-bioassay guided activity.

Pharmacological Research 36(4):315–321

Aqil F, Khan MS, Owais M, Ahmad I 2005 Effect of certain bioactive

plant extracts on clinical isolates of beta-lactamase producing

methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Basic

Microbiology 45(2):106–114

Bajracharya M, Tillotson A, Abel R 1997 Ayurvedic ophthalmology:

a recension of the Shalakya Tantra of Videhadhipati

Janaka. Piyushabarshi Aushadhalaya Mahabouddha,

Kathmandu, p 85

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers,

New Delhi, p 9–10

Dash B, Junius M 1983 A handbook of Ayurveda. Concept

Publishing, New Delhi, p 88

Frawley D, Lad V 1986 The yoga of herbs: an Ayurvedic guide to

herbal medicine. Lotus Press, Santa Fe, p 164

Kapoor LD 1990 CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants.

CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 321

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1018–1019

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by A.K.

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 1203–1204

Nandy AK, Podder G, Sahu NP, Mahato SB 1989 Triterpenoids and

their glycosides from Terminalia belerica. Phytochemistry

28(10):2769

Padam SK, Grover IS, Singh M 1996 Antimutagenic effects of

polyphenols isolated from Terminalia belerica myroblan in

Salmonella typhimurium. Indian Journal of Experimental

Biology 34(2):98–102

Rani P, Khullar N 2004 Antimicrobial evaluation of some medicinal

plants for their anti-enteric potential against multi-drug

resistant Salmonella typhi. Phytotherapy Research

18(8):670–673

Row LR and Murthy PS 1970 Chemical examination of Terminalia

belerica Roxb. Indian Journal of Chemistry 8:1047–1048

Shaila HP, Udupa AL, Udupa SL 1995 Preventive actions of

Terminalia belerica in experimentally induced atherosclerosis.

International Journal of Cardiology 49(2):101–106

Sharma PV 1993 Essentials of A¯yurveda: S.oda´sa¯n.gahr. dayam.

Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p 18

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi p 150, 158–159, 162

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 164

Trivedi VP, Nesamany S, Sharma VK 1979 A clinical study of the

antitussive and anti-asthmatic effects of Vibhitakphal Curna

(Terminalia belerica Roxb.) in the cases of Kasa-Swasa. Journal

of Research in A¯yurveda and Siddha 3:1–8

Valsaraj R, Pushpangadan P, Smitt UW 1997 New anti-HIV–1,

antimalarial, and antifungal compounds from Terminalia bellerica.

Journal of Natural Products 60(7):739–742

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1996 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 5. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 258

Bilva 185

Botany: Bilva is a medium-sized deciduous tree that

attains a height of up to 8 m, with sharp axillary

thorns up to 2.5 cm long and a yellowish-brown corky

bark. The trifoliate leaves are alternately arranged, the

leaflets ovate to ovate lanceolate, the lateral leaflets

subsessile and the terminal leaflet on a long petiole.

The flowers are greenish-white and sweet-scented,

borne in axillary panicles. The oblong globose fruits

that follow are 5–7.5 cm in diameter, with a grey or

yellow rind enclosing a sweetish orange-coloured pulp

that contains numerous seeds arranged in cells, surrounded

by a slimy transparent mucilage. Bilva is

native to the subcontinent of India eastwards into

Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia and Indonesia, found growing

wild in drier tropical forests (Kirtikar & Basu 1935,

Warrier et al 1994).

Part used: Unripe fruit, leaves, bark, root.

Dravygun. a: Unripe fruit

● Rasa: tikta, ka´sa¯ya, amla, kat.u

● Vipa¯ka: laghu

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a

● Karma: dı¯panapa¯cana, purı ¯s.asangrahan. iya, balya,

va¯takaphahara (Dash 1991, Srikanthamurthy

2001, Warrier et al 1994).

Constituents: Bilva contains a large diversity of constituents

in different parts of the plant. The fruit rind

contains umbelliferone, dictamine, xanthotoxol,

xanthotoxin, scoparone, isopimpinellin, sioimperatorin,

N–2-methoxy-2-(4-methoxyphenyl) ethylcinnamamide,

marmeline and its methyl ester, bergapten,

marmesin, osthol and auraptin. The fruit flesh

contains a mucilage, xanthotoxol, scoparone, scopoletin,

umbelliferone, marmesin, skimmin, allaimperatorin,

marmesolin, -sitosterol, marmelide and psoralen.

The seeds are stated to contain a fatty oil

(Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vivo: antidiarrhoeal (Shoba & Thomas 2001);

hypoglycaemic, anti-oxidant (Upadhya et al 2004);

hypolipidaemic (Rajadurai et al 2005); antitumour

(Jagetia et al 2005).

● Human trials: a preparation containing Aegle

marmelos and Bacopa monnieri demonstrated significant

improvement in irritable bowel syndrome

compared to placebo (Yadav et al 1989).

Toxicity: A study which examined the treatment of

male rats over an 8-week period with an extract of

Aegle marmelos demonstrated no toxic or antifertility

effects (Aritajat et al 2000).

Indications: Diarrhoea, dysentery, intestinal spasm,

inflammatory bowel disease.

Contraindications: Constipation.

Medicinal uses: Although the etymology of the

ancient Dravidian name Bilva is lost, the tree and in

particular the trifoliate leaves are associated with the

god ´Siva. The leaves and fruit are commonly used in

Hindu religious ceremonies, and the fruit is among the

objects held by the goddess Laks.mı¯, representing the

‘fruit’ (karma) of our actions and conditioned existence.

Unripe Bilva fruit is among the most common

remedies used in A¯ yurveda to treat both diarrhoea

and dysentery, in much the same way as Da¯d.ima

rind. It is widely believed by many practitioners that

Bilva is able to cure particularly recalcitrant cases of

diarrhoea when nothing else works. The unripe fruits

are harvested in winter and usually dried in the sun.

In the treatment of summer diarrhoea the dried fruits

are decocted with carminative herbs such as

Bilva

BOTANICAL NAME: Aegle marmelos, Rutaceae

OTHER NAMES: ´Srı¯phala (S); Bel (H); Kuvilam, Bilvam (T); Bael Tree (E)

186 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Ajamoda¯, strained, and then administered as a cool

drink, often forming the only medication used.

Similarly, the dried unripe fruit is reduced to a cu¯rn.

a

and then administered with treacle in doses of 2–3

grams. Sometimes Bilva is prepared as a conserve or

jam used to treat diarrhoea or in convalescence after

dysentery. In the treatment of grahan. ı¯ or diarrhoea

due to malabsorptive syndromes, the Cakradatta recommends

a paste prepared from the tender fruits of

Bilva with ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯ and jaggery, prepared in buttermilk.

Combined with Lodhra and Marica, and mixed

with honey and taila, Bilva is mentioned by the

Bha¯vapraka¯´sa to be an effective treatment for dysentery

(Srikanthamurthy 2000). The Bha¯vapraka¯´sa

also mentions Bilva as a key ingredient in

the preparation of Bilva taila, used to treat diarrhoea,

malabsorption syndromes and haemorrhoids

(Srikanthamurthy 2000). The mature fruits are often

eaten as a medicinal food, and prepared with sugar as

a cooling beverage in the heat of summer. The roots

are similarly astringent as the fruit, but are also used

in vitiated conditions of va¯ta (Warrier et al 1994),

and are an ingredient in the Da´samu¯la (‘ten roots’)

formula. The leaves are used in ophthalmic disorders,

diabetes and asthma (Warrier et al 1994).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 2–12 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 1:4, 50–100 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Aritajat S, Kaweewat K, Manosroi J, Manosroi A 2000 Dominant

lethal test in rats treated with some plant extracts. Southeast

Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 31(suppl

1):171–173

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New

Delhi, p 14

Haider R, Khan AK, Aziz KM et al 1991 Evaluation of indigenous

plants in the treatment of acute shigellosis. Tropical and

Geographical Medicine 43(3):266–270

Jagetia GC, Venkatesh P, Baliga MS 2005 Aegle marmelos (L.)

Correa inhibits the proliferation of transplanted Ehrlich ascites

carcinoma in mice. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin

28(1):58–64

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 499

Rajadurai M, Prince PS 2005 Comparative effects of Aegle marmelos

extract and alpha-tocopherol on serum lipids, lipid peroxides

and cardiac enzyme levels in rats with

isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction. Singapore

Medical Journal 46(2):78–81

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi

Shoba FG, Thomas M 2001 Study of antidiarrhoeal activity of four

medicinal plants in castor-oil induced diarrhoea. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology 76(1):73–76

Srikanthamurthy KR 2000 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 2.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 139

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 229

Upadhya S, Shanbhag KK, Suneetha G et al 2004 A study of hypoglycemic

and anti-oxidant activity of Aegle marmelos in

alloxan induced diabetic rats. Indian Journal of Physiology and

Pharmacology 48(4):476–480

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 1. Orient-

Longman, Hyderabad, p 62–63

Yadav SK, Jain AK, Tripathi SN, Gupta JP 1989 Irritable bowel syndrome:

therapeutic evaluation of indigenous drugs. Indian

Journal of Medical Research 90:496–503

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 24

Bra¯hmı¯, ‘consort of Brahma¯’ 187

Botany: Bra¯hmı¯ is a prostrate or creeping succulent

annual herb, rooting at the nodes with numerous

ascending branches. The leaves are oppositely

arranged, margin simple, obovate-oblong, and sessile,

with small black dots. The flowers are solitary, pale

blue or white, borne in the leaf axils on long slender

pedicles, giving rise to two-celled, two-valved ovoid

capsules that contain numerous tiny seeds. Bra¯hmı¯

is found throughout tropical India in damp, marshy

areas (Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1994).

Bra¯hmı¯ is sometimes found as an ornamental ground

cover, and is under cultivation in India and other

warm, wet locations.

Part used: Aerial portions.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: tikta, ka´sa¯ya, madhura

● Vipa¯ka: madhura

● Vı¯rya: ´sita

● Karma: medhya, jı ¯vanı ¯ya, rasa¯yana, ka¯sahara,

jvaraghna, kus.t.

haghna, anulomana, va¯takaphahara,

balya.

● Prabha¯va: The name Bra¯hmı ¯ means ‘consort of

Brahma¯’, the active, feminine counterpart (´sakti) to

Brahma¯, the lord of Creation in Hindu cosmology,

suggesting that this herb has a direct ability to

faciliate divine consciousness (Dash 1991,

Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1994).

Constituents: Researchers have isolated numerous

glycosidal constituents from Bra¯hmı¯, including the

saponins monnierin and hersaponin, dammaranetype

triterpenoid, bacosaponins that include bacopasides

III, IV, V, bacosides A and B (which upon acid

hydrolysis yield the aglycones bacogenins A1–A5) and

bacosaponins A, B and C. Other saponin glycosides

include the jujubogenin bisdesmosides bacopasaponins

D, E and F. Other constituents include a matsutaka

alcohol derivative, a phenylethanoid glycoside, luteolin

and luteolin-7-glucoside, the alkaloids brahmine, herpestine

and a mixture of three bases, D-mannitol,

betulic acid, -sitosterol, stigmasterol and its esters,

heptacosane, octacosane, nonacosane, triacontane,

hentriacontane, dotriacontane, nicotine, and 3-formyl-

4-hydroxy-2H-pyran. The presence of -alamine,

aspartic acid, glutamic acid and serine has also been

reported (Cakravarty et al 2003, Garai et al 1996a, b,

Hou et al 2002, Mahato et al 2000, Rastogi et al 1994,

Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vitro: acetylcholinesterase activity (Das et al

2002), anti-withdrawal (Sumathi et al 2002), antispasmodic

(Dar & Channa 1999).

● In vivo: nootropic (Singh & Dhawan 1982), antidementia

(Das et al 2002), anti-epileptic (Vohora

et al 2000), thyrostimulant (Kar et al 2002), antioxidant

(Bhattacharya et al 2000, Chowdhuri et al

2002, Sumathy 2002, Tripathi et al 1996), hepatoprotective

(Sumathy et al 2001), anti-ulcerogenic

(Sairam et al 2001).

● Human trials: Bra¯hmı¯ demonstrated a significant

effect upon the retention of new information,

decreasing the rate at which newly acquired information

is forgotten, in adults aged between 40 and

65 years (Roodenrys et al 2002); Bra¯hmı¯ significantly

improved the speed of visual information

processing, learning rate and memory consolidation,

and reduced anxiety, in healthy human subjects

(Stough et al 2001).

Toxicity: No data found.

Bra¯hmı¯, ‘consort of Brahma¯’

BOTANICAL NAME: Bacopa monniera, Scrophulariaceae

OTHER NAMES: Sarasvatı¯ (S); Barami, Jalnim (H); Nirpirami, Piramiyapundu (T);

Bacopa (E)

188 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Indications: Mental fatigue, poor memory, depression,

psychosis, dementia, epilepsy, neuralgia, weakness,

fatigue, debility, ageing, infertility, fever, skin

diseases, atherosclerosis, angina, hoarseness, bronchitis,

asthma, dyspepsia, flatulence, constipation,

splenomegaly, ascites, urinary tenesmus, musculoskeletal

inflammation, anaemia, poisoning.

Contraindications: pittakopa in high doses; use

with extreme caution with antiseizure, antipsychotic

and antidepressant medication.

Medicinal uses: Bra¯hmı¯ is among the more important

botanicals used in the treatment of unma¯da

(‘psychosis’) and apasma¯ra (‘epilepsy’), often taken

by itself in the form of the fresh juice, mixed

with honey, or in complex polyherbal formulations.

One remedy mentioned by the Cakradatta is

Bra¯hmı¯ghr. ta, prepared by cooking one part aged

ghr. ta in four parts fresh juice of Bra¯hmı¯, mixed with

the powders of Vaca¯, Kus.

t.

ha and ´San.khapus.pı¯

(Sharma 2002). This recipe, or similar, is mentioned

also in the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa and the As.t.

a¯ñga Hr.

daya,

used in the treatment of unma¯da, apasma¯ra and

spiritual possession, taken in doses of 12 g, with warm

water or milk (Srikanthamurthy 1995, 2000). The

´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯ recommends a similar

preparation in the treatment of unma¯da, made up of

the fresh juices of equal parts Bra¯hmı¯, Ku¯s.ma¯n.d.

a

and ´San.khapus.pı¯ mixed with Kus.

t.

ha cu¯rn.

a and

honey (Srikanthamurthy 1984). A simpler preparation

is made by decocting one part of the dried herb or

fresh juice in four parts ghr. ta and 16 water until all

the water is evaporated. The resultant preparation is

filtered and then applied as a nasya in doses of five

drops per nostril in the treatment mental disorders.

A similar preparation, but using sesame or coconut oil,

results in a preparation that can be massaged into the

feet, large joints and ears before sleep in the treatment

of anxiety and depression. The Bhais.ajyaratna¯valı¯

mentions a complex formulation called Sa¯rasvataris.

t.

a, a fermented beverage in which Bra¯hmı¯ is

the major constituent, used in the treatment of

infertility, epilepsy and mental disorders, dosed

between 12 and 24 mL twice daily. According to the

Bha¯vapraka¯´sa, a lehya prepared from equal parts

Bra¯hmı¯, Vaca¯, Harı¯takı¯, Va¯saka and Pippalı¯ mixed

with honey is an effective treatment for hoarseness,

enabling the patient to ‘be able to sing along with the

divine nymphs within seven days’ (Srikanthamurthy

2000). Combined with equal parts A´svagandha¯ and

Kapikacchu¯, Bra¯hmı¯ may be helpful in the treatment

of Parkinson’s disease and epilepsy. In the treatment

of Alzheimer’s disease, Bra¯hmı¯ may be helpful

when combined with botanicals such as Ginkgo

(Ginkgo biloba), Hawthorn (Crataegus oxycanthoides),

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and Haridra¯. In

childhood ADD/ADHD, autism, and PDD Bra¯hmı¯

may be of great help, used along with herbs such as

Ling zhi (Ganoderma lucidum), Milky Oat seed (Avena

sativa), Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) and A´svagandha

¯. In unipolar depressive states and chronic

fatigue Bra¯hmı¯ may be helpful when used along with

equal parts St John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum),

Damiana (Turnera diffusa), Vervain (Verbena hastata)

and American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium). In the

treatment of addiction and withdrawal, Bra¯hmı¯ may

be helpful when taken with equal parts California

Poppy (Eschscholzia californica), Milky Oat seed (Avena

sativa), A´svagandha¯ and Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora),

used in high doses as a weaning agent, or to

reduce usage. In the treatment of hypothyroid conditions

Bra¯hmı¯ may be helpful when combined with

equal parts each of Guggulu and Kelp (Fucus vesiculosis),

with one half part each Iris root (Iris versicolor)

and Oregon Grape root (Mahonia aquifolium). As

a nootropic agent Bra¯hmı¯ can be taken by itself or

with other similar herbs such as Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯, as

the svarasa (fresh juice) or hima (infusion) to

improve memory and retention by students, but only

when taken regularly throughout a semester, not the

evening before an exam.

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–10 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Svarasa: 10–25 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Hima: 1:4, 30–120 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Taila: 1:4, ghr. ta, 12 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.; as abhyan . ga

ad lib.; as nasya 5 gtt. in each nostril sd.

● Tincture: 1:2, fresh plant; 1:4 recently dried herb,

1–10 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

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activity of Bacopa monniera in rat frontal cortex, striatum

and hippocampus. Phytotherapy Research:

14(3):174–179

Bra¯hmı¯, ‘consort of Brahma¯’ 189

Cakravarty AK, Garai S, Masuda K et al 2003 Bacopasides III-V:

Three new triterpenoid glycosides from Bacopa monniera.

Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin (Tokyo)

51(2):215–217

Chowdhuri DK, Parmar D, Kakkar P et al 2002 Antistress effects of

bacosides of Bacopa monniera: modulation of Hsp70 expression,

superoxide dismutase and cytochrome P450 activity in

rat brain. Phytotherapy Research 16(7):639–645

Dar A, Channa S 1999 Calcium antagonistic activity of Bacopa

monniera on vascular and intestinal smooth muscles of rabbit

and guinea-pig. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

66(2):167–174

Das A, Shanker G, Nath C et al 2002 A comparative study in

rodents of standardized extracts of Bacopa monniera and

Ginkgo biloba: anticholinesterase and cognitive enhancing

activities. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior

73(4):893–900

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New

Delhi, p 101

Garai S, Mahato SB, Ohtani K, Yamasaki K 1996a. Dammaranetype

triterpenoid saponins from Bacopa monniera.

Phytochemistry 42(3):815–820

Garai S, Mahato SB, Ohtani K, Yamasaki K 1996b Bacopasaponin

D – a pseudojujubogenin glycoside from Bacopa monniera.

Phytochemistry 43(2):447–449

Hou CC, Lin SJ, Cheng JT, Hsu FL 2002 Bacopaside III, bacopasaponin

G, and bacopasides A, B, and C from Bacopa monniera.

Journal of Natural Products 65(12):1759–1763

Kar A, Panda S, Bharti S 2002 Relative efficacy of three medicinal

plant extracts in the alteration of thyroid hormone concentrations

in male mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

81(2):281–285

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1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1816

Mahato SB, Garai S, Cakravarty AK 2000 Bacopasaponins E and F:

two jujubogenin bisdesmosides from Bacopa monniera.

Phytochemistry 53(6):711–714

Rastogi S, Pal R, Kulshreshtha DK 1994 Bacoside A3: a triterpenoid

saponin from Bacopa monniera. Phytochemistry

36(1):133–137

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Brahmi (Bacopa monniera) on human memory.

Neuropsychopharmacology 27(2):279–281

Sairam K, Rao CV, Babu MD, Goel RK 2001 Prophylactic and curative

effects of Bacopa monniera in gastric ulcer models.

Phytomedicine 8(6):423–430

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translation. Chaukhamba, Varanasi p 194

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Stough C, Lloyd J, Clarke J et al 2001 The chronic effects of an

extract of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) on cognitive function in

healthy human subjects. Psychopharmacology

156(4):481–484

Sumathi T, Nayeem M, Balakrishna K et al 2002 Alcoholic extract

of ‘Bacopa monniera’ reduces the in vitro effects of morphine

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Ethnopharmacology 82(2–3):75–81

Sumathy T, Govindasamy S, Balakrishna K, Veluchamy G 2002

Protective role of Bacopa monniera on morphine-induced

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73(5):381–385

Sumathy T, Subramanian S, Govindasamy S et al 2001 Protective

role of Bacopa monniera on morphine induced hepatotoxicity

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Linn. as an anti-oxidant: mechanism of action. Indian Journal

of Experimental Biology 34(6):523–526

Vohora D, Pal SN, Pillai KK 2000 Protection from phenytoininduced

cognitive deficit by Bacopa monniera, a reputed Indian

nootropic plant. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

71(3):383–390

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species. vol 1. Orient

Longman Hyderabad, p 235

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 67

190 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany: Candana is a medium-sized evergreen parasitic

tree with slender drooping branches that, when

mature, attains a height of up to 18 m. The rough

bark is dark grey to brownish black with short vertical

cracks, and the highly scented heartwood is yellowish

brown in colour when fresh and becoming

dark reddish brown with oxidation. The leaves are

simple, opposite, elliptic-lanceolate and glabrous.

The flowers are brownish or reddish purple borne in

axillary paniculate cymes, giving rise to globose

fruits. Candana is found in the dry deciduous forests

of south India on stony but fertile soil, up to 1200 m

in elevation. Candana and allied species are scattered

widely from the Malay Archipelago to Australia

and the Pacific islands, including Hawaii. In India

only wild mature specimens of Candana between 30

and 50 years are considered suitable for harvesting,

and this relatively slow growth complexed with a

consistently high demand for this product, as well as

illegal poaching, forest fires and disease, has made it

a threatened species. India currently does not allow

the export of any S. album timber. A similar species

that is native to Australia and identified as S. spicatum

is currently being used as a substitute for S. album

(Evans 1989, Hamilton & Conrad 1990, Kirtikar &

Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1996).

Part used: Dried heartwood, essential oil.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: tikta

● Vipa¯ka: laghu

● Vı¯rya: ´sita, ru¯ks.a

● Karma: pittakaphahara, medhyam, balya,

mu¯travi´sodhana, hr . daya, chedana, da¯hapra´samana,

´son. itastha¯pana, jvaraghna, kus.t.

haghna.

● Prabha¯va: Candana is said to be a¯hla¯dana

(‘gives happiness’) (Dash 1991, Frawley & Lad

1986, Nadkarni 1954, Srikanthamurthy 2001,

Warrier et al 1996).

Constituents: The heartwood of Candana contains

an essential oil called sandalwood oil, 90% of which

are the sesquiterpene alcohols and -santalol,

and 6% sesquiterpene hydrocarbons including and

-santalenes, epi--santalene, and and -curcumenes.

The and -santalols are responsible for the

characteristic odour and colour of sandalwood oil.

Other constituents in the essential oil include dihydro-

-agarofuran, santene, teresantol, borneol, teresantalic

acid, santalone, santanol and tricyclo-ekasantalal.

The bark contains tannins, fatty acids and a waxy

material. The essential oil of S. spicatum is said to contain

a very similar range of constituents to S. album, as

well as the sesquiterpene furan dendrolasin that has

a sweet, lemongrass fragrance (Duke 1985, Evans

1989, Walker 1968, Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vitro: anti-HSV–1 and –2 (Benencia &

Courreges 1999), antibacterial (Ochi et al 2005).

● In vivo: chemopreventative (Banerjee et al

1993, Dwivedi et al 2003), antitumour (Dwivedi

& Abu-Ghazaleh 1997), hypotensive (Bourke

et al 1973).

Toxicity: Possible cytochrome P450 inducement in

high doses long term (Jones et al 1994). The essential

oil reported to have a ‘baneful effect upon the kidneys’

in larger doses, taken internally (Nadkarni 1954).

Indications: Gastric irritability, dysentery, biliousness,

jaundice, cough, bronchitis, fever, inflammatory

skin diseases, herpes, skin cancer, poisoning,

thirst, haemorrhage, burning sensations, cystitis,

menorrhagia, leukorrhoea, headache, memory loss,

Candana, ‘gladdening’

BOTANICAL NAME: Santalum album, Santalaceae

OTHER NAMES: Sandal (H); Candanam (T); Sandalwood (E); Tan xiang (C)

Candana, ‘gladdening’ 191

psychosis, depression, cardiac debility, palpitations,

arrhythmia.

Contraindications: Renal disease; va¯takopa; concurrent

usage with pharmaceuticals; beware of common

adulterants to the oil, such as castor and cedar

wood oil.

Medicinal uses: Candana has long been esteemed in

India as not only a useful medicine, but as an important

construction material that is highly resistant to

decay, and as an important fragrance in Hindu ceremonies,

often applied to the forehead by devout

Hindus as a tilak to pacify the dos.as of the mind. To

this end the Cakradatta mentions Candana¯di lepa

in the treatment of headache, composed of equal

parts powders of Candana, U´sı¯ra, Yas.t.

imadhu,

Bala¯, Vya¯ghranakha and Nı¯lotpala, mixed with

milk, prepared as a paste and applied to the head

(Sharma 2002). Several texts, including the Caraka

sam. hita¯, Cakradatta and ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯,

mention a complex polyherbal medicated oil that contains

Candana as the chief ingredient, called

Cañdana¯dya taila, taken internally and applied topically

in the treatment of spiritual possession, epilepsy,

mental disorders, haemorrhage and consumptive conditions

(Sharma 2002, Srikanthamurthy 1984). On a

more mundane level, Candana is specific to paittika

disorders, the ground powder applied topically as a

paste made with cool water or milk for inflammatory

skin conditions such as herpes, scabies, pruritis,

prickly heat and insect bites, and internally as an

emulsion in the treatment of gastric irritability, dysentery,

thirst and heat stroke. In mild tachycardia (i.e.

‘tobacco heart’) Candana is stated to have a calming

nervine effect, slowing heart rate and promoting contentment

and relaxation (Nadkarni 1954). Bensky &

Gamble (1986) mention that Candana is used with

the Chinese herbs Dan shen (Salvia miltorrhiza) and Xi

xin (Asarum sieboldii) for angina pectoris. The essential

oil of Candana is a useful remedy in afflictions of the

urinary tract, such as cystitis, gonorrhoea and pyelitis,

and can be used in similar dosages for irritating

coughs and bronchitis. The Eclectic physicians

Felter and Lloyd (1893) state that the oil is specific to

‘ . . . subacute and chronic affections of mucous tissues,

particularly gonorrhoea after the active symptoms

have been mitigated’. An emulsion of the wood

mixed with sugar, honey and rice is used to check

gastric irritability (Nadkarni 1954). When mixed with

zinc oxide ointment (10%, v/v), the essential oil is a

useful adjunct in the treatment of herpetic lesions,

reapplied every few hours over a period of days until

the inflammation ceases. Owing to its astringent and

cooling qualities, Candana is a useful haemostatic

and a specific to a group of diseases called rakta

pitta, all of which are characterised by haemorrhage,

as well as daha, or ‘burning sensations’. To this end

Candana is taken both internally and applied topically,

in the latter case either as a paste mixed with

cool milk or decocted and then cooled as a bath. Due to

its drying ( ru¯ks.

a) properties a decoction of Candana

is also recommended by the As.t.

a¯ñga Hr.

daya as

dravya for vasanta .rtucarya¯ (spring regimen) to

relieve excess kapha (Srikanthamurthy 1994).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 1:4, 30–90 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: 1:5, 50% alcohol, 1–4 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Essential oil: 5–10 gtt (encapsulated, suspended in

Acacia gum powder or similar) b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Banerjee S, Ecavade A, Rao AR 1993 Modulatory influence of sandalwood

oil on mouse hepatic glutathione S-transferase activity

and acid soluble sulphydryl level. Cancer Letters

68(2–3):105–109

Benencia F, Courreges MC 1999 Antiviral activity of sandalwood oil

against herpes simplex viruses–1 and –2. Phytomedicine

6(2):119–123

Bensky D, Gamble A 1993 Chinese herbal medicine materia medica,

revised edn. Eastland Press, Seattle, p 240

Bourke EL, Matsumoto SY, Tam RF et al 1973 A hypotensive agent

in Santalum ellipticum. Planta Medica 23(2):110–114

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New

Delhi, p 32

Duke JA 1985 Handbook of medicinal herbs. CRC Press, Boca

Raton, p 426

Evans WC 1989 Trease and Evan’s pharmacognosy, 13th edn.

Baillière-Tindall, London, p 474

Felter HW, Lloyd JU 1893 King’s American dispensatory. Available:

http://www.ibiblio.org/herbmed/eclectic/kings/main.html

Frawley D, Lad V 1986 The yoga of herbs: an Ayurvedic guide to

herbal medicine. Lotus Press, Santa Fe, p 213

Dwivedi C, Abu-Ghazaleh A 1997 Chemopreventive effects of sandalwood

oil on skin papillomas in mice. European Journal of

Cancer Prevention 6(4):399–401

Dwivedi C, Guan X, Harmsen WL et al 2003 Chemopreventive

effects of alpha-Santalol on skin tumor development in CD–1

and SENCAR mice. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and

Prevention 12(2):151–156

192 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Hamilton L, Conrad CE eds 1990 Proceedings of the Symposium on

Sandalwood in the Pacific, April 9–11, 1990, Honolulu. USDA

Forest Service, Albany

Jones GP, Birkett A, Sanigorski A et al 1994 Effect of feeding quandong

(Santalum acuminatum) oil to rats on tissue lipids,

hepatic cytochrome p–450 and tissue histology. Food and

Chemical Toxicology 32(6):521–525

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 2186

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by AK

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 1099–1102

Ochi T, Shibata H, Higuti T et al 2005 Anti-Helicobacter pylori compounds

from Santalum album. Journal of Natural Products

68(6):819–824

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 144, 562

Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯: a treatise on

Ayurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi

Srikanthamurthy KR 1994 Va¯gbhat.

a’s As.t.

a¯ñga Hrydayam, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 37, 135

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 208

Walker GT 1968 Sandalwood oil: the chemistry of oil of sandalwood.

Perfumery and Essential Oil Record 59:778–785

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1996 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 5. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 57

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 481

Citraka, ‘the spotted one’ 193

Botany: Citraka is a perrenial and sometimes woody

herb, with many stout cylindrical roots that exude

a yellowish juice when cut. The leaves are thin,

3.8–7.5 cm by 2.2–3.8 cm, ovate, subacute, glabrous

above and somewhat glaucous below, with a short

petiole. The white (P. zelanica) or bright red (P. rosea)

flowers are borne in elongated spikes, the calyx covered

in sessile glands, the corolla tube slender, about

four times as long as the calyx. The flower gives way to

an elongated, oblong capsule. Citraka is found

throughout India, Sri Lanka and the Malay

Archipelago in moist, tropical locations (Kirtikar &

Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1995).

Part used: Root, whole plant.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: kat.u

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a, ru¯ks.

a, tiks.n.

a, laghu

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, gra¯hı ¯, kr . mighna, chedana,

ka¯sahara, sva¯sahara, raktaprasa¯dana, kus.t.

haghna,

mu¯travirecana, ´sothahara, medohara, rasa¯yana,

va¯takaphahara (Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier

et al 1995).

Constituents: The root and root bark of Citraka

contain the yellow naphthoquinone pigment plumbagin

and other chemically related naphthoquinones

including droserone, dihydroserone, elliptinone,

nisoshinanolone, plumbazeylanone isozeylinone,

napthoquinonemethylene3′3-diplumbagin, chitranone,

maritinone, elliptinone, isoshinanolone

2-methylnaphthazarin, plumbazeylone and zeylone.

Two plumbagic acid glucosides (3′-O--glucopyranosyl

plumbagic acid and 3′-O--glucopyranosyl

plumbagic acid methylester) have been isolated, as

well as the coumarins seselin, 5-methoxyseselin,

suberosin, xanthyletin and xanthoxyletin (Lin et al

2003, Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vitro: antibacterial (Durga et al 1990, Wang

& Huang 2005), antitumour (Prasad et al 1996),

anti-oxidant (Tilak et al 2004).

● In vivo: hypolipidaemic (Sharma et al 1991), antiatherogenic

(Sharma et al 1991), antibacterial

(Abdul & Ramchender 1995), antitumour (Devi

et al 1994, Parimala & Sachdanandam 1993),

dopaminergic (Bopaiah et al 2001), anti-allergenic

(Dai et al 2004)

Toxicity: The 24-hour oral LD50 of an ethanolic root

extract of Plumbago rosea in mice was determined to be

1148.15 mg/kg (Solomon et al 1993). The oral LD50 of

plumbagin in mice was stated to be 10 mg/kg

(Williamson 2002).

Indications: Dyspepsia, flatulent colic, malabsorption,

haemorrhoids, intestinal parasites, hepatosplenomegaly,

cough, bronchitis, chronic and intermittent

fever, skin diseases, amenorrhoea, anaemia, inflammatory

joint disease.

Contraindications: Pregnancy, constipation, pittakopa.

Citraka is traditionally considered to be a

potentially caustic agent with abortifacient properties

and should be used with care, preferably in formulation.

Medicinal uses: The etymology of Citraka is not

clear, the term ‘spotted’ perhaps referring to the

glands on the calyx, or to the leopard, which is also

called Citraka, in reference to the idea that Citraka

moves quickly to remove disease, like the leopard

Citraka, ‘the spotted one’

BOTANICAL NAMES: Plumbago zeylanica, P. rosea, Plumbaginaceae

OTHER NAMES: Chita, Chitri, Chiti (H); Chittiramulam, Vellai (T);

White-flowered Leadwort (E)

194 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

catches its prey. Krishnamurthy (1991) speculates

that the term may refer to holes left on the dried primary

root from fallen lateral roots. Citraka is among

the most potent and active remedies to stimulate digestion

and dispel accumulated kapha and a¯ma, but

because of its fiery properties should be used with caution,

and is most often used in formulation. It finds representation

in many different formulations that are

commonly used in A¯ yurveda, used to treat digestive

disorders and oedema. It has a powerful irritant effect

and no less so upon the uterus for which at one time it

was used rather dangerously to procure abortion when

applied topically to the cervix (Kirtikar & Basu 1935).

In the treatment of malabsorptive syndromes, haemorrhoids,

abdominal pain and swelling, and splenomegaly

the Cakradatta recommends a simple

medicated ghr. ta made from Citraka (Sharma 2002).

The Bha¯vapraka¯´sa recommends Citrakadi gut.ika¯

(‘pills’) in the treatment of grahan. ı¯, or malabsorption.

The Cakradatta recommends Citrakadya ghr. ta as

a vajı¯karan. a in both women and men, and corrector

of disorders of the urinary tract. Citrakadya ghr. ta is

prepared by mixing 10 g each of Citraka, Sa¯riva¯,

Bala¯, Ka¯lanusa¯riva¯, Dra¯ks.

a¯, Vi´sala, Pippalı¯,

Indravaruni, Yas.t.

imadhu and A¯malakı¯ with 2.56

kg of ghr. ta decocted in 10.24 litres of milk, reduced to

the original volume of ghr. ta. When complete 640

grams each of sugar and Vam.

´sarocana¯ are added

(Sharma 2002). Citraka also makes its way into the

very popular formula Yogara¯jaguggulu, a remedy

that ‘ . . . stimulates the digestive fire, promotes energy

and strength, and overcomes va¯ttika (va¯ta) disorders

even if located in the joints and marrow’ (Sharma

2002).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 500–1000 mg, b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Ghr. ta: 3–5 g, b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Abdul KM, Ramchender RP 1995 Modulatory effect of plumbagin

(5-hydroxy–2-methyl–1,4-naphthoquinone) on macrophage

functions in BALB/c mice. I. Potentiation of macrophage bactericidal

activity. Immunopharmacology 30(3):231–236

Bopaiah CP, Pradhan N 2001 Central nervous system stimulatory

action from the root extract of Plumbago zeylanica in rats.

Phytotherapy Research 15(2):153–156

Dai Y, Hou LF, Chan YP et al 2004 Inhibition of immediate allergic

reactions by ethanol extract from Plumbago zeylanica stems.

Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 27(3):429–432

Devi PU, Solomon FE, Sharada AC 1994 In vivo tumor inhibitory

and radiosensitizing effects of an Indian medicinal plant,

Plumbago rosea on experimental mouse tumors. Indian Journal

of Experimental Biology 32(8):523–528

Durga R, Sridhar P, Polasa H 1990 Effects of plumbagin on antibiotic

resistance in bacteria. Indian Journal of Medical Research

91:18–20

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1466–1467, 1469

Krishnamurthy KH 1991 Wealth of Su´sruta. International Institute

of A¯yurveda, Coimbatore, p 407

Lin LC, Yang LL, Chou CJ 2003 Cytotoxic naphthoquinones and

plumbagic acid glucosides from Plumbago zeylanica.

Phytochemistry 62(4):619–622

Parimala R, Sachdanandam P 1993 Effect of Plumbagin on some

glucose metabolising enzymes studied in rats in experimental

hepatoma. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 125(1):59–63

Prasad VS, Devi PU, Rao BS, Kamath R 1996 Radiosensitizing effect

of plumbagin on mouse melanoma cells grown in vitro. Indian

Journal of Experimental Biology 34(9):857–858

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 82, 250, 316

Sharma I, Gusain D, Dixit VP 1991 Hypolipidaemic and anti-atherosclerotic

effects of plumbagin in rabbits. Indian Journal of

Physiology and Pharmacology 35(1):10–14

Shoba FG, Thomas M 2001 Study of antidiarrhoeal activity of four

medicinal plants in castor-oil induced diarrhoea. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology 76(1):73–76

Solomon FE, Sharada AC, Devi PU 1993 Toxic effects of crude root

extract of Plumbago rosea (Rakta citraka) on mice and rats.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 38(1):79–84

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 169

Tilak JC, Adhikari S, Devasagayam TP 2004 Anti-oxidant properties

of Plumbago zeylanica, an Indian medicinal plant and its active

ingredient, plumbagin. Redox Report 9(4):219–227

Wang YC, Huang TL 2005 Anti-Helicobacter pylori activity of

Plumbago zeylanica L. FEMS Immunology and Medical

Microbiology 43(3):407–412

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1995 Indian medicinal

plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 4. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 321

Williamson EM (ed) 2002 Major herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill

Livingstone, London, p 242

Yadav SK, Jain AK, Tripathi SN, Gupta JP 1989 Irritable bowel syndrome:

therapeutic evaluation of indigenous drugs. Indian

Journal of Medical Research 90:496–503

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 426

Devada¯ru, ‘wood of the gods’ 195

Botany: Devada¯ru is a large conifer that attains

a height of between 20 and 45 m, pyramidal in shape

when young but becoming irregularly shaped with

age. The bark is dark, almost black in colour, the

branches horizontal and spreading, the leading shoot

and tips usually drooping. The needle-like leaves are

stiff, about 2.5–3.8 cm long, borne in dense whorls of

20–30 per cluster. The flowers are usually monoecious,

the male catkins solitary and cylindrical, producing

clouds of yellow, wind-blown pollen in early

spring. The egg-shaped female cones are bluish green,

10–12.5 cm long, solitary, carried on the ends of the

branchlets, and release pale brown seeds with papery

wings after about two years. Devada¯ru is found

throughout the Himalayas and Hindu Kush mountain

ranges, from 1000 to 3500 m in elevation, usually

growing in full sunlight (Kirtikar & Basu 1935,

Warrier et al 1994).

Part used: Heartwood.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: tikta

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, bhedana, kr . mighna,

jvaraghna, hr . daya, mu¯travirecana, mu¯travi´sodhana,

´sotahara, vedana¯stha¯pana, kaphava¯tahara

(Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1994).

Constituents: The primary component of interest in

Devada¯ru is the essential oil, which contains

p-methylacetophenone, p-methyl-–3-tetrahydroacetophenone,

alantone, the sesquiterpene alcohols

himachalol, allohimachalol, and -himachalenes,

as well as cedrol and limonene. Other constituents

that have been isolated from the wood include the

flavonoids deodarin, cedeodarin, cedrin, cedrinoside

and quercitin, as well as the sesquiterpene himasedone,

isoprimaric acid, deodadione, carboxylic acid,

cedrusin, cedrusinin, matairesinol, nortrachelogenin,

and a dibenzylbutyrolactollignan (Kapoor 1990,

Tiwari et al 2001, Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vitro: anti-oxidant (Tiwari et al 2001).

● In vivo: anti-inflammatory (Shinde et al 1999a, b),

analgesic (Shinde et al 1999b), antifungal

(Chowdhry et al 1997), antispasmodic (Kar et al

1975), hypotensive (Kar et al 1975)

Toxicity: No data found.

Indications: Fever, dyspepsia, colic, flatulence, haemorrhoids,

hiccough, bronchitis, renal and vesical calculi,

stranguary, oedema, diabetes, skin diseases,

ulcers, wounds, epilepsy, heart disease, pain, inflammation,

headache.

Contraindications: pittakopa, in large doses.

Medicinal uses: Devada¯ru is called the ‘wood of the

gods’ because it grows in the Himalayan mountain

range, said to be the abode of the god ´Siva, nurtured

by the ‘breastmilk’ (melting snow) of his consort,

Pa¯rvatı¯ (Sharma 1993). Devada¯ru is also used in

Hindu religious ceremonies, mentioned in the epic

Ra¯ma¯yan.

a as a fragrant wood used to build the

funeral pyre. In regard to its medicinal uses, the

Bha¯vapraka¯´sa mentions that Devada¯ru is useful to

remove a¯ma from the a¯ma¯´saya (Srikanthamurthy

2001). To this extent Devada¯ru is used in the treatment

of fever, particularly of the bilious variety, to

rekindle agni and restore weakened hepatic secretions.

Devada¯ru is also used as an anodyne, either

Devada¯ru, ‘wood of the gods’

BOTANICAL NAME: Cedrus deodara, Pinaceae

OTHER NAMES: Dedwar, Deodar (H); Tevadaram, Tevadaru (T);

Himalayan Cedar (E)

196 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

singly or in combination, taken internally and applied

topically. In diarrhoea Devada¯ru has a tonic action,

restoring tone to the muscular fibres (Nadkarni 1954),

and thus finds application in rectal prolapse (Kirtikar &

Basu 1935). Applied topically, the powder and distilled

oil is often used in the treatment of ulcers as an antiinfective

and vulnerary, and has traditionally formed

topical therapies targeted to leprosy (Kirtikar & Basu

1935). The Bha¯vapraka¯´sa mentions Devada¯ru as

one of the chief ingredients in Devada¯rvya¯di kva¯tha,

used post-partum as a restorative and tonic

(Srikanthamurthy 2000). Combined with equal parts

Harı¯takı¯, Va¯saka, ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯ and A¯ malakı¯,

taken with honey, the ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯ recommends

Devada¯ru in the treatment of fever, dyspnoea,

cough and dyspepsia (Srikanthamurthy 1984).

In the treatment of va¯ta-type variants of headache,

the ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯ recommends a lepa prepared

with equal parts powders of Devada¯ru, Nata,

Kus.

t.

ha, Jat.

a¯ma¯msı¯ and ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, mixed with rice

water and oil, applied over the head (Srikanthamurthy

1984).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–5 g, b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 1:4, 30–90 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: 1:5, 50% alcohol, 1–3 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Chowdhry L, Khan ZK, Kulshrestha DK 1997 Comparative in vitro

and in vivo evaluation of himachalol in murine invasive

aspergillosis. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 35(7):

727–734

Kapoor LD 1990 CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants. CRC

Press, Boca Raton, p 110

Kar K, Puri VN, Patnaik GK et al 1975 Spasmolytic constituents of

Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud: pharmacological evaluation of

himachalol. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 64(2):

258–262

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 2390–2391

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by A.K.

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 295

Sharma PV 1993 Essentials of A¯yurveda: s.oda´sa¯n.gahr. dayam.

Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, p 21

Shinde UA, Kulkarni KR, Phadke AS et al 1999a Mast cell stabilizing

and lipoxygenase inhibitory activity of Cedrus deodara (Roxb.)

Loud. wood oil. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 37(3):

258–261

Shinde UA, Phadke AS, Nair AM et al 1999b Studies on the antiinflammatory

and analgesic activity of Cedrus deodara (Roxb.)

Loud. wood oil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 65(1): 21–27

Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯: a treatise on

Ayurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi, p 63, 242

Srikanthamurthy KR 2000 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha-vami´sra, vol 2.

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plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 2. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 41–44

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Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 119

Ela¯ 197

Botany: Ela¯ is a perennial plant with thick, fleshy rhizomes

and leafy stems, attaining a height of between 1.2

and 5 m. The leaves are subsessile, 30–60 cm long and

7.5 cm wide, oblong-lanceolate, and pubescent below.

The flowers are borne in panicles that arise from the base

of the vegetative shoots, upright at first but eventually

becoming prostrate. The flower bracts are persistent, linear-

oblong, up to 5 cm in length. The calyx is 1–3 cm

long, the whitish convex lip streaked with violet. The

oblong seed capsule is about 2.5 cm long, and marked

with fine vertical ribs. Ela¯ exhibits considerable variation

under cultivation, which has led to much confusion

regarding its identification. There are two primary varieties

within this species: E. cardamomum var. major,

which comprises the ‘wild’ or indigenous Cardamom

found in Sri Lanka, and E. cardamomum var. minuscula,

originally derived from the former, and now comprising

several cultivated races grown in Sri Lanka, South India

and, more recently, Central America. Among the cultivated

varietals, Mysore fruits have a creamy pale colour

and a smooth surface; Malabar fruits are smaller, less

smooth and have a darker colour; Mangalore fruits are

similar in colour to Malabar but are rounder and have a

rough pericarp; Allepy are narrower and the pericarp has

a striated appearance, and varies in colour from buffgreen

to green; Ceylon resemble Allepy but are longer and

usually greener. The seed capsules are dried slowly, and in

some cases bleached in the sun or with burning sulphur;

more often, however, an attempt is made to preserve the

green colour of the capsule by soaking them in a 2%

sodium carbonate solution for 10 minutes (Evans 1989,

Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1994).

Part used: Seeds.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: kat.u, madhura

● Vipa¯ka: madhura

● Vı¯rya: ´sita, laghu, ru¯ks.

a

● Karma: dı¯panapa¯cana, anulomana, chardinigrahan. a,

´sulapra´samana, ar´soghna, chedana, ka¯sahara,

sva¯sahara, hr . daya, vajı ¯karan. a, va¯takaphahara (Dash

1991, Nadkarni 1954, Srikanthamurthy 2001,

Warrier et al 1994).

Constituents: Ela¯ is noted and valued for its volatile

oil, which constitutes between 2.8 and 8% of the seed’s

total weight (averaging about 4%). Among the many

components of the oil are cineol, terpineol, terpinene,

limonene, sabinene, camphene, camphor, p-cymene,

cineol, -ylangene, nerolidol, eugenyl-acetate and borneol.

Other constituents include cardiolipin, phosphatidyl-

ethanolamine, phosphatidyl-inositol, starch,

gum, a yellow colouring agent, mucilage, fibre, manganese

and calcium oxalate (al-Zuhair et al 1996,

Duke 2003, Evans 1989, Kapoor 1990)

Medical research:

● In vivo: anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic (al-

Zuhair et al 1996), gastrostimulant (Vasudevan

et al 2000).

Toxicity: Ela¯ is commonly used as a culinary spice

and is generally recognised as safe. Duke (2002)

reports that borneol, cineol and limonene are irritants,

and limonene is a photosensitiser.

Indications: Toothache, dyspepsia, colic, diarrhoea,

malabsorption, haemorrhoids, colds, cough, bronchitis,

asthma, hoarseness, enuresis, dysuria, spermatorrhoea,

headache.

Contraindications: Duke (2002) reports that

Cardamom may trigger colic in cholelithiasis; ulcers;

pittakopa.

Medicinal uses: Ela¯ is lauded by A¯ yurvedic physicians

as one of the best and safest digestive agents in

Ela¯

BOTANICAL NAME: Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiberaceae

OTHER NAMES: Su¯ks.

ma Ela¯ (S); Elachi (H); Elam (T); Cardamom (E)

198 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

the materia medica. Although it is a pungent-tasting

herb it has a cool vı¯rya, and is thus considered

sattvic. Unlike many stimulants it is unlikely to provoke

a negative reaction in paittika conditions, and

thus can be found as a mild dı¯panapa¯cana adjunct in

many different A¯ yurvedic formulae. Ela¯ has a long

history as one of the most valuable and expensive of

spices, long imported from India and Sri Lanka into the

Middle East and Europe, used by both ancient Greek

and Arabic physicians. Ela¯ is an important stomachic

and carminative, used in colic, flatulence and convalescence

after diarrhoea, and as an adjunct to purgative

formulations to reduce griping. It is added to coffee

in the Middle East as a flavour and to ameliorate the

negative effects of caffeine. Nadkarni (1954) mentions

a compound powder containing equal parts Ela¯,

´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Lavan . ga and Jı¯raka as a useful stomachic in

atonic dyspepsia. When the powders of Patra leaf,

Tvak bark and Ela¯ are mixed together in equal proportions

this is called Trisugandha¯ cu¯rn.

a (the ‘three

aromatics’), and when these are combined with

Na¯gake´sara the formula is called Ca¯turja¯taka

cu¯rn.

a; both are used in the treatment of kaphaja

conditions, and tend to promote dryness, lightness and

heat in the body (Srikanthamurthy 1984). The

Cakradatta recommends a variation of a compound

called Ela¯di cu¯rn.

a in the treatment of severe cases of

dysuria, comprising equal parts Ela¯, Pa¯s.a¯n. abheda,

´Sila¯jatu and Pippalı¯, mixed with water and jaggery

and consumed as a lehya (Sharma 2002). The

Bhais.ajyaratna¯valı¯ recommends another Ela¯di

cu¯rn.

a in the treatment of bronchitis and asthma consisting

of equal parts Ela¯, Lavan . ga, Na¯gake´sara,

Mustaka, Candana, Pippalı¯, Kolamajja, La¯ja and

Priyan.gu, taken with honey and sugar (India 1978).

This latter version of Ela¯di cu¯rn.

a is mentioned in the

Cakradatta as a treatment for nausea and vomiting

(Sharma 2002). Ela¯ combined with equal parts

Pippalı¯, Goks.ura, Yas.t.

imadhu, Pa¯s.a¯n. abheda,

Ren.

uka¯ and Eran.d.

a, and mixed with a larger proportion

of ´Sila¯jatu, is recommended by the Cakradatta

for urinary calculi and gravel (Sharma 2002). In the

treatment of fever, anorexia, vomiting, fainting,

giddiness, cough, asthma, haemoptysis and chest

wounds the Cakradatta recommends Ela¯di gut.ika¯,

comprising Ela¯ seed, Tvak bark and Patra leaf (5 g

each), Pippalı¯ (20 g), and Yas.t.

imadhu, Kharju¯ra

and Dra¯ks.

a¯ (40 g each), and powdered sugar, mixed

with honey to make pills, 10 g daily (Sharma 2002).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: seeds, 2–3 g, b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Pha¯n.t.

a: crushed pods, 1:4, 30–60 mL, b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: crushed pods, 1:5, 60% alcohol, 1–2

mL, b.i.d.–t.i.d.

 

Om Tat Sat

                                                        

(Continued...) 

(My humble salutations to   Sreeman Todd Caldecott, Elsevier’s Health Sciences and others other eminent medical scholars and doctors   for the collection)