Ayurveda the divine science of life -19

Ayurveda the divine science of life

Toxicity: An alcoholic extract of the leaves is stated

to have an LD50 of 1500 mg/kg (Avadhoot & Rana

1991).

Indications: Dyspepsia, colic, flatulence, dysentery,

haemorrhoids, hepatosplenomegaly, intestinal parasites,

fever, cough, bronchitis, skin diseases, ear

infection, alopecia, ophthalmic disorders, dysmenorrhoea,

PMS, injuries and wounds, inflammatory

joint disease, pain, epilepsy, poor memory, psychosis,

drug withdrawal.

Contraindications: Nirgun.d.

ı¯ should be used with

caution with the concurrent use of psychotropic

Nirgun.

d.

ı¯

BOTANICAL NAME: Vitex negundo, Verbenaceae

OTHER NAMES: Sambhalu, Sanduvar (H); Nallavavili (T); Indian Privet,

Five-leaved Chastetree (E)

256 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

drugs, including analgesics, sedatives, antidepressants,

anticonvulsants and antipsychotics. Vitex

negundo is quite similar botanically to the better studied

V. agnus castus, and thus may have a similar range

of contraindications, including the concurrent use of

progesterogenic drugs and hormone replacement

therapies (Mills & Bone 2000).

Medicinal uses: Nirgun.d.

ı¯ is used in a variety of

ways, both internally and externally, depending upon

the plant part used. Taken internally, the juice

(svarasa) of the fresh leaf is used in a variety of digestive

disorders, from dyspepsia to parasites, and helps to

resolve kaphaja and va¯ttika fevers, catarrh, cough

and bronchitis. The leaf juice also displays an alterative

property that makes it useful in skin conditions

such as eczema and psoriasis, and in inflammatory

joint disorders such as arthritis and gout. Applied

externally, the svarasa is used in the treatment of otitis

media, joint inflammation, wounds, snake and

insect bites, ulcers, bruises, sprains, and orchitis, to

relieve both pain and inflammation. The juice is also

used in bacterial and parasitic skin conditions. The

freshly dried leaves can be made into a strong infusion

and used in much the same way as the fresh juice, and

specifically, are smoked in the treatment of kaphaja

conditions such as headache and catarrh (Nadkarni

1954). The fresh juice prepared as a medicated ghr. ta

is mentioned in the treatment of cough, consumptive

conditions and chest wounds (Sharma 2002,

Srikanthamurthy 1995). Prepared as medicated

ghr. ta with the fresh juices of Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯,

Bra¯hmı¯, Bhr.n . gara¯ja and A¯malakı¯, Nirgun.d.

ı¯ leaf

juice can be used in the treatment of alopecia and poor

eyesight, as well as to enhance intelligence and treat

mental disorders. Combined with the powders of

U´sı¯ra, Trikat.u, barley, and mung bean, and crushed

with goat’s urine, Nirgun.d.

ı¯ cu¯rn.

a is fashioned into

suppositories (vartti), mixed with water and used as

a collyrium in the treatment of epilepsy, psychosis and

unconsciousness (Sharma 2002, Sharma & Dash

1988). The Madanapahala nighan.t.

u states specifically

that Nirgun.d.

ı¯ is a promoter of memory (Dash

1991), and this traditional usage as a medhya

rasa¯yana parallels the modern usage of Chasteberry

(Vitex agnus castus) as a dominergic agent, helpful

in weaning patients off addictive drugs such as heroin.

Prepared as a medicated oil with Mustaka, U´sı¯ra,

Devada¯ru, Mañjis.t.

ha¯, Vid.

an.ga, Khadira and

Yas.t.

imadhu, Nirgun.d.

ı¯ is used as a mouthwash in

the treatment of periodontal disease and to relieve

tooth pain (Sharma 2002). The fresh juice of

Nirgun.d.

ı¯ mixed with sesame oil, saindhava, soot,

jaggery and honey is recommended by the Cakradatta

in the treatment of purulent discharges of the ear

(Sharma 2002). The root bark is mentioned in

the treatment of rheumatism, haemorrhoids, and irritable

bladder, used in much the same way as the

leaf (Nadkarni 1954). The flowers are somewhat different

from the rest of the plant, however, and have

a cooling energy, used in paittika-specific disorders

such as bleeding diarrhoea and haemorrhage

(Warrier et al 1996).

Dosage: Leaves

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Svarasa: 12–25 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Hima: 30–90 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: recently dried leaf, 1:3, 2–5 mL

b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Alam MI, Gomes A 2003 Snake venom neutralization by Indian

medicinal plants (Vitex negundo and Emblica officinalis) root

extracts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 86(1):75–80

Avadhoot Y, Rana AC 1991 Hepatoprotective effect of Vitex

negundo against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage.

Archives of Pharmacal Research 14(1):96–98

Bhargava SK 1989 Antiandrogenic effects of a flavonoid-rich fraction

of Vitex negundo seeds: a histological and biochemical

study in dogs. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 27(3):327–339

Chandramu C, Manohar RD, Krupadanam DG, Dashavantha RV

2003 Isolation, characterization and biological activity of

betulinic acid and ursolic acid from Vitex negundo L.

Phytotherapy Research 17(2):129–134

Chawla AS, Sharma AK, Handa SS, Dhar KL 1992 Chemical investigation

and anti-inflammatory activity of Vitex negundo

seeds. Journal of Natural Products 55(2):163–167

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers,

New Delhi, p 55

Gupta M, Mazumder UK, Bhawal SR 1999 CNS activity of Vitex

negundo Linn. in mice. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology

37(2):143–146

Hebbalkar DS, Hebbalkar GD, Sharma RN et al 1992 Mosquito

repellent activity of oils from Vitex negundo Linn. leaves.

Indian Journal of Medical Research 95:200–203

Jana U, Chattopadhyay RN, Shaw P 1999 Anti-inflammatory activity

of Zingiber officinale Rosc., Vitex negundo Linn. and

Tinospora cordifolia (Willid) Miers in albino rats. Indian

Journal of Pharmacology 31:232–233

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal Plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1937–1938

Mills S, Bone K 2000 Principles and practice of phytotherapy.

Churchill Livingstone, London, p 332

Nirgun.d.

ı¯ 257

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with

Ayurvedic, Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged

by A.K. Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay,

p 1280

Nair AM, Saraf MN 1995 Inhibition of antigen and compound

48/80 induced contractions of guinea pig trachea by the

ethanolic extract of the leaves of Vitex negundo Linn. Indian

Journal of Pharmacology 27:230–233

Perumal SR, Ignacimuthu S, Sen A 1998 Screening of 34 Indian

medicinal plants for antibacterial properties. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology 62(2):173–182

Shafi MP, Geetha Nambiar MK, Jirovetz L et al 1998 Analysis of the

essential oils of the leaves of the medicinal plants Vitex

negundo var. negundo and Vitex negundo var. purpurescens

from India. Acta Pharmaceutica 48: 179–186

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta: Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 143, 192, 500, 517

Sharma RK, Dash B 1988 Agnivesa’s Caraka Sam. hita¯: text with

English translation and critical exposition based on Cakrapani

Datta’s A¯yurveda Dipika, vol 3. Chaukhambha Orientalia,

Varanasi, p 452

Srikanthamurthy KR 1995 Va¯gbhat.

a’s As.t.

a¯ñga Hr. dayam, vol 3.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 225

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 217, 245

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1996 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 5. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 387

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 585

258 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany: Pippalı¯ is a slender aromatic climber with

a perennial woody root, an erect rootstalk, with many

jointed branches, the nodes swollen and sometimes

rooting. The leaves are entire, glabrous, with reticulate

venation, the lower leaves ovate, cordate, on long petioles,

the upper leaves smaller, similarly cordate but

oblong-oval, petioles short or absent. The creamy

coloured flowers are are borne in solitary pendunculate

cylindrical spikes, the male flowers longer and

more slender than the female spikes, the latter giving

way to a cylindrical cluster of small ovoid fruits about

4 cm in length, that passes from green to orange-red in

colour when ripe, becoming black upon drying.

Pippalı¯ is found growing wild throughout the hotter

regions of Southeast Asia in evergreen forests, but is

also cultivated extensively (Kirtikar & Basu 1935,

Warrier et al 1995).

Part used: Fruit (Pippalı¯), root (Pippalı¯mu¯la).

Dravygun. a: Fruit

● Rasa: kat.u

● Vipa¯ka: madhura

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a, snigdha, tiks.n.

a

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, bhedana, kr . mighna,

jvaraghna, chedana, ka¯sahara, sva¯sahara, kus.t.

haghna,

mu¯travirecana, medohara, hr . daya, medhya,

vajı ¯karan. a, rasa¯yana, va¯takaphahara

(Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1995).

Constituents: Pippalı¯ fruit contains a number of constituents,

including a volatile oil, alkaloids, isobutylamides,

lignans and esters. The volatile oil is responsible

for the characteristic odour of Pippalı¯, consisting of

caryophyllene, pentadecane, bisaboline, thujine, terpinoline,

zingiberine, p-cymene, p-methoxyacetophenone,

dihydrocarveol and others. The pungency, however, is

due primarily to the alkaloidal constituents, including

piperine, methylpiperine, pipernonaline, piperettine,

asarinine, pellitorine, piperundecalidine, piperlongumine,

piperlonguminine and others, as well as isobutylamides

such as retrofractamide, brachystamide and

longamide that provide for the characteristic tingling

sensation and sialogogue properties of Pippalı¯. Other

constituents include the lignans sesamin, pulviatilol

and fargesin, the esters tridecyl-dihydro-p-coumarate,

eicosanyl-(E)-p-coumarate, and Z–12-octadecenoicglycerol-

monoester, fatty acids including palmatic,

linoleic and linolenic acids, amino acids including

L-tyrosine, L-cysteine and DL-serine, as well as minerals

such as calcium, phosphorous and iron (Williamson

2002, Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vitro: anti-amoebic (Ghoshal & Lakshmi 2002,

Ghoshal et al 1996), giardicidal (Tripathi et al

1999), insecticidal (Yang et al 2002).

● In vivo: anti-amoebic (Ghoshal & Lakshmi 2002,

Ghoshal et al 1996), giardicidal (Tripathi et al

1999), immunostimulant (Agarwal et al 1994),

absorption/bioavailability enhancement (Atal et al

1981, Khajuria et al 2002), anti-ulcerogenic

(Agrawal et al 2000), hepatoprotective (Koul and

Kapil 1993), antitumour (Pradeep & Kuttan 2002).

● Human trials: a formula consisting of Piper

longum and Butea monosperma given to patients suffering

from giardiasis completely eliminated the

parasite from the stool in 92% of the treatment

group, and simultaneously decreased the presence

of mucus, pus cells and RBCs (Agarwal et al 1997).

Toxicity: A series of acute (24 hour) and chronic (90

day) oral toxicity studies were carried out on an

ethanolic extract of Piper longum fruit in mice. Acute

dosages were 0.5, 1.0 and 3 g/kg, while the chronic

dosage was 100 mg/kg daily. The extract caused no

significant acute or chronic mortality compared to

Pippalı¯

BOTANICAL NAME: Piper longum, Piperaceae

OTHER NAMES: Pipli, Pipal (H); Pippili, Tippili (T); Long Pepper (E)

Pippalı¯ 259

controls, although researchers noted that the extract

caused a significant increase in the weight of the

lungs and spleen, as well as reproductive organs, without

any negative effects upon sperm count or motility

(Shah et al 1998). Duke (1985) states that piperine

and other Piper alkaloids are chemically similar to a

mutagenic urinary safrole metabolite, and thus there

is theoretical concern for carcinogenicity, although

feeding trials with Piper nigrum in experimental animals

have failed to produce any negative effects at

doses of 50 g/3 kg in the diet (Shwaireb et al 1990). A

few studies have associated the incidence of

oesophageal cancer with Piper nigrum, thought to be

due to an irritative effect upon the oesophageal

mucosa (Ghadirian et al 1992).

Indications: Poor appetite, dyspepsia, flatulent colic,

constipation, dysentery, haemorrhoids, cholelithiasis,

jaundice, splenomegaly, intestinal parasites, fever, hiccough,

pharyngitis, coryza, cough, bronchitis, asthma,

skin diseases, cystitis, coma, paralysis, epilepsy, amenorrhoea,

post-parturient, arthritis, gout, lumbago, circulatory

problems.

Contraindications: Due to its warming nature Pippalı¯

is contraindicated in severe pittakopa conditions.

Medicinal uses: Pippalı¯ is without a doubt the most

celebrated and widely used pungent remedy in

A¯

yurvedic medicine, used as a simple home remedy in

the treatment of disorders such as dyspepsia, coryza

and bronchitis, and also as an important rasa¯yana

dravya. In kut.ı¯pra¯ve´sika rasa¯yana, the most potent

rasa¯yana technique, the Cakradatta recommends

that ten fruits be consumed with cow’s milk on the first

day, increased by ten fruits on each successive day for

10 days, and thereafter reduced by ten until finished

(Sharma 2002). The Cakradatta also states that the

daily consumption of Pippalı¯ in the amount of five,

seven, eight or ten fruits daily, taken with honey, also

acts as a rasa¯yana, although the effect is less than in

the former technique. Both these methods, however,

are stated to be effective for a wide range of conditions,

including anorexia, dyspepsia, malabsorption, haemorrhoids,

bronchitis, asthma, consumption, throat disorders,

chronic fever, anaemia, oedema and paralysis.

The Bha¯vapraka¯´sa ascribes different therapeutic

properties to Pippalı¯ depending upon the anupa¯na.

Taken with honey Pippalı¯ specifically reduces medas

(fat) and accumulations of kapha, and is stated to be a

good treatment for fever, cough and bronchitis, with

vajı¯karan. a and medhya rasa¯yana properties

(Srikanthamurthy 2001). Taken with twice the

amount of jaggery the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa states that

Pippalı¯ is suited to the treatment chronic fever, dyspepsia,

asthma, heart diseases and intestinal parasites

(Srikanthamurthy 2001). Although generally considered

to be a pungent, warming herb, the effect is stated

to be so mild that Pippalı¯ can be used in the treatment

of fever, although it is best reserved in va¯ta or kapha

variants, with predominant symptoms such as body

pain and catarrh, as opposed to a very high temperature.

Although difficult to obtain in the West, the

fresh green fruit is stated to have a ´sita and snigdha

vı¯rya, and is used specifically to reduce pitta

(Srikanthamurthy 2001). Pippalı¯ is most often found

as part of the famous Trikat.u formulation, composed

of equal parts Pippalı¯, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯ and Marica, used in

the treatment of anorexia, dyspepsia, pharyngitis,

catarrhal conditions, a¯ma, coldness and poor circulation.

Trikat.u and Pippalı¯ are found in literally hundreds

of formulas as an adjunct to enhance the

bioavailability or modify the effect of the other constituents

in the formula. Prepared as a medicated

ghr. ta, the Cakradatta states that Pippalı¯ is useful in

the treatment of flatulent colic, splenomegaly and

hepatic torpor (Sharma 2002). Prepared as a medicated

oil, Pippalı¯ is decocted with equal parts Bilva,

´Satapus.pa¯, Vaca¯, Kus.

t.

ha, Citraka, Devada¯ru, ´Sat.ı¯,

Yas.t.

imadhu, Pus.karamu¯la and Madana, used as

an enema in severe haemorrhoids, rectal prolapse,

dysentery, dysuria, and weakness of the lower back

and legs (Sharma 2002). As a post-parturient emmenagogue

to expel the placenta and to relieve pain the

Cakradatta recommends Pippalı¯ cu¯rn.

a be taken

with wine (Sharma 2002).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 2–3 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Ghr. ta: 3–6 g b.i.d.

● Tincture: dried fruit, 1:3, 1–2 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Agarwal AK, Singh M, Gupta N et al 1994 Management of giardiasis

by an immuno-modulatory herbal drug Pippali rasayana.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 44(3):143–146

260 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Agarwal AK, Tripathi DM, Sahai R et al 1997 Management of giardiasis

by a herbal drug Pippali rasayana: a clinical study.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 56(3):233–236

Agrawal AK, Rao CV, Sairam K et al 2000 Effect of Piper longum

Linn, Zingiber officinalis Linn and Ferula species on gastric

ulceration and secretion in rats. Indian Journal of

Experimental Biology 38(10):994–998

Atal CK, Zutshi U, Rao PG 1981 Scientific evidence on the role of

Ayurvedic herbals on bioavailability of drugs. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology 4(2):229–232

Chatterjee A, Dutta CP 1967 Alkaloids of Piper longum Linn. I.

Structure and synthesis of piperlongumine and piperlonguminine.

Tetrahedron 23(4):1769–1781

Duke JA 1985 Handbook of medicinal herbs. CRC Press, Boca

Raton, p 383

Ghadirian P, Ekoe JM, Thouez JP 1992 Food habits and esophageal

cancer: an overview. Cancer Detection and Prevention

16(3):163–168

Ghoshal S, Lakshmi V 2002 Potential antiamoebic property of the

roots of Piper longum Linn. Phytotherapy Research

16(7):689–691

Ghoshal S, Prasad BN, Lakshmi V 1996 Antiamoebic activity of

Piper longum fruits against Entamoeba histolytica in vitro and

in vivo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50(3):167–170

Khajuria A, Thusu N, Zutshi U 2002 Piperine modulates permeability

characteristics of intestine by inducing alterations in membrane

dynamics: influence on brush border membrane fluidity, ultrastructure

and enzyme kinetics. Phytomedicine 9(3):224–231

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 2128

Koul IB, Kapil A 1993 Evaluation of the liver protective potential of

piperine, an active principle of black and long peppers. Planta

Medica 59(5):413–417

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by A.K.

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay

Pradeep CR, Kuttan G 2002 Effect of piperine on the inhibition of

lung metastasis induced B16F–10 melanoma cells in mice.

Clinical and Experimental Metastasis 19(8):703–708

Shah AH, Al-Shareef AH, Ageel AM, Qureshi S 1998 Toxicity studies

in mice of common spices, Cinnamomum zeylanicum bark

and Piper longum fruits. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition

52(3):231–239

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta: Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi p 88, 273, 353, 589

Shwaireb MH, Wrba H, El-Mofty MM, Dutter A 1990

Carcinogenesis induced by black pepper (Piper nigrum) and

modulated by vitamin A. Experimental Pathology

40(4):233–238

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 166, 167

Tripathi DM, Gupta N, Lakshmi V et al 1999 Antigiardial

and immunostimulatory effect of Piper longum on giardiasis

due to Giardia lamblia. Phytotherapy Research

13(7):561–565

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1995 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 4.

Hyderabad, Orient Longman, p 290

Williamson EM (ed) 2002 Major herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill

Livingstone, London, p 226

Yang YC, Lee SG, Lee HK et al 2002 A piperidine amide extracted

from Piper longum L. fruit shows activity against Aedes aegypti

mosquito larvae. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

50(13):3765–3767

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 416

Punarnava¯, ‘once again new’ 261

Botany: Punarnava¯ is a herbaceous perennial with

a large root and highly branched stems that are prostrate

or ascending to a height of up to a metre. The

leaves are simple, ovate-oblong, acute or obtuse at the

tip and rounded or subcordate at the base, glabrous

above, white with minute scales below. The small rose

or white coloured flowers are borne in small umbels

arranged in corymbone, axillary and terminal panicles,

giving way to a detachable indehiscent seed with

a thin pericarp. Punarnava¯ is found throughout the

subcontinent of India as a weed of wastelands and

roadsides, and is also found in similar tropical and

subtropical environs in Africa and the Americas. The

Sanskrit name ´Svetapunarnava¯ refers to B. repens

(with white flowers), whereas Raktapunarnava¯

refers to B. diffusa (with red flowers) (Kirtikar & Basu

1935, Warrier et al 1994).

Part used: Roots, aerial parts.

Dravygun. a:

The various nighan.t.

us typically differentiate between

´Svetapunarnava¯ and Raktapunarnava¯, and based

on this, provide differing and sometimes contradictory

accounts of the dravygun. a.

● Rasa: tikta, madhura, kat.u, ka´sa¯ya

(´Svetapunarnava¯); tikta (Raktapunarnava¯)

● Vipa¯ka: madhura (´Svetapunarnava¯); kat.u

(Raktapunarnava¯)

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a, ru¯ks.

a (´Svetapunarnava¯); ´sita, laghu

(Raktapunarnava¯)

● Karma: dı ¯pana, bhedana (Svetapunarnava¯),

stambhana (Raktapunarnava¯), sulapra´samana,

kr . mighna, chedana, sva¯sahara, mu¯travirecana,

mu¯travi´sodhana, ´sotahara, hr . daya, vis.aghna,

a¯rtavajanana, rasa¯yana, tridos.ahara; the

Bha¯vapraka¯´sa states that Raktapunarnava¯ increases

va¯ta, and thus ´Svetapunarnava¯ is preferred in va¯taja

conditions (Dash 1991, Kirtikar & Basu 1935,

Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1994).

Constituents: Among the first constituents isolated

from Punarnava¯ was the sulfate of an alkaloid

named punarnavine, and since then a variety of

constituents have been described, including rotenoid

analogues (boeravinone A–F, punarnavoside), lignans

(liriodendrin, syringaresinol mon--D-glucoside),

xanthones (boerhavine, dihydroisofuranoxanthone),

C-methylflavone, hentriacontane, -sitosterol, ursolic

acid, potassium nitrate, and amino acids (Kapoor

1990, Williamson 2002, Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vitro: immunomodulant (Mehrotra et al

2002).

● In vivo: hepatoprotective (Chandan et al 1991);

antibacterial (Singh et al 1986); adaptogenic

(Sharma et al 1990); hypoglycaemic (Chude et al

2001); anti-amoebic, immunomodulant (Sohni &

Bhatt 1996).

Toxicity: The LD50 for an ethanolic extract of the root

and whole plant is 1000 mg/kg in adult albino rats

(Williamson 2002).

Indications: Dyspepsia, gastritis, ulcer, constipation

(´Svetapunarnava¯), diarrhoea and dysentery

(Raktapunarnava¯), intestinal parasites, fistula,

jaundice, cirrhosis, splenomegaly, fever, cough,

bronchitis, asthma, pleurisy, urinary tenesmus, renal

diseases, gonorrhoea, oedema, ascites, scrotal

enlargement, haemorrhage, scabies, lumbago, myalgia,

leucorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, heart disorders,

heart valve stenosis, anaemia, epilepsy, debility and

fatigue, ophthalmia.

Punarnava¯, ‘once again new’

BOTANICAL NAMES: Boerhavia repens, B. diffusa, Nyctaginaceae

OTHER NAMES: ´Svetapunarnava¯, Raktapunarnava¯ (S); Sant, Gadahpurna (H);

Mukkurattai (T); Red Spiderling, Spreading Hogweed (E)

262 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Contraindications: Pregnancy; the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa

states the Raktapunarnava¯ is contraindicated in

va¯takopa conditions. Due to its potential GABAnergic

activity Punarnava¯ may be contraindicated

with concurrent use of tranquilisers, antidepressants

and antiseizure drugs. Nadkarni (1954) states that in

high doses Punarnava¯ may act as an emetic.

Medicinal uses: Punarnava¯ is an important

rasa¯yana dravya in A¯ yurvedic medicine, indicated by

the translation of its Sanskrit name, ‘once again new’.

For this purpose Punarnava¯ can be taken as a milk

decoction, 10–24 grams of the root taken twice daily.

The potent rejuvenating properties of Punarnava¯ root

are also made use of in a variety of rejuvenating formulae,

including the famous medicinal confection

Cyavanapra¯´sa. Punarnava¯, however, also has a

number of more mudane uses, especially for its ability

to correct diseases of the urinary tract and treat

oedema. As a simple remedy for cystitis the svarasa or

cu¯rn.

a of Punarnava¯ can be taken, 10–15 mL of the

juice, or 3–5 grams of the powder, thrice daily until

symptoms are gone. In the treatment of oedema

10–15 mL of the fresh juice of the leaves can be mixed

with a small amount of Marica or ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, taken

twice daily for several weeks. The fresh juice is also

taken in jaundice and in menstrual disorders.

Lt. Col. Chopra found that Punarnava¯ was efficacious

in the treatment of oedema and ascites due to early

cirrhosis and peritonitis, using a liquid extract prepared

from either the dry or fresh plant material of

Svetapunarnava¯ (Nadkarni 1954). Nadkarni

(1954) adds that Punarnava¯ is equally effective in

oedema secondary to heart disease from stenosis of the

valves, in pleurisy and in other oedematous conditions.

In most cases Punarnava¯ is used in polyherbal formulations

to treat oedema and other conditions. In the

treatment of oedema as well as colic, bloating,

flatulence, constipation, haemorrhoids, intestinal parasites,

and anaemia, the Cakradatta recommends

Punarnava¯man.

d.

´sra, composed of equal parts

Punarnava¯, Trivr.

t, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Pippalı¯, Marica,

Vid.

an.ga, Devada¯ru, Citraka, Pus.karamu¯la,

Haridra¯, Dañtı¯, Cavya, Indrayava, Kat.uka,

Pippalı¯mu¯la and Mustaka, decocted in cow’s urine

(Sharma 2002). Another formula called Punarnava¯di

taila is mentioned by the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa in the

treatment of urinary calculi, muscle pains and hernia

associated with the aggravation of kapha and

va¯ta, used in vasti (enemata) and internally

(Srikanthamurthy 2000). A decoction of Punarnava¯,

Devada¯ru, Harı¯takı¯ and Gud.u¯cı¯ combined with

Guggulu is stated to be effective in abdominal enlargement

(udararoga), as well as intestinal parasites, obesity,

anaemia, oedema and skin diseases (Sharma

2002). Similarly, a combination of Punarnava¯,

Devada¯ru, Gud.u¯cı¯, Pa¯t.ha¯, Bilva, Goks.ura, Br. hatı¯,

Kan.

t.

aka¯ri, Haridra¯, Da¯ruharidra¯, Pippalı¯,

Citraka and Va¯saka, reduced to a fine powder and

taken with cow’s urine is used in abdominal enlargement

secondary to intestinal parasites (Sharma 2002).

In va¯ttika forms of oedema a combination of

Punarnava¯, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Eran.d.

a and Br. hatı¯ is stated by

the Cakradatta to be efficacious (Sharma 2002). As a

topical therapy for oedema the ´Sa¯ran . gadhara

sam. hita¯ recommends Punarnava¯di lepa, prepared

by combining equal parts powders of Punarnava¯,

Da¯ruharidra¯, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Siddha¯rtha and ´Sigru with

rice water (Srikanthamurthy 1984). Given the ability of

Punarnava¯ to mobilise kidney function and thus promote

the elimination of metabolic wastes in joints and

muscles, it is also used to treat inflammatory joint disease,

including gout and rheumatoid arthritis. To this

extent the Cakradatta recommends a formula called

´Satya¯di kva¯tha, consisting of a decoction of

Punarnava¯ with a paste of ´Sat.ı¯ and ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, taken

every day for at least 1 week (Sharma 2002). Similarly,

the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa advocates a complex formula called

Punarnava¯ guggulu in the treatment of gout, hernia,

sciatica, muscular atrophy and inflammatory joint disease

(Srikanthamurthy 2000). In the treatment of

internal abscesses the ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯ recommends

a decoction of Punarnava¯ and Varun.

a

(Srikanthamurthy 1984). Punarnava¯ is also valued in

ophthalmic disorders, the ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯

recommending a collyrium (añjana) for itching,

prepared by mixing the cu¯rn.

a with milk; mixed

with honey to treatment ophthalmic discharges;

with ghr. ta for corneal wounds; with taila for poor

vision; and with rice water (kanjika) for night

blindness (Srikanthamurthy 1984). In the treatment of

alcoholism the Cakradatta recommends a decoction of

Punarnava¯ to restore ojas (Sharma 2002). In the

treatment of diabetes Punarnava¯ can be combined

with ´Sila¯jatu and Gud.u¯cı¯. Punarnava¯ is also consumed

as a nourishing vegetable in India, as it is rich in

vitamins and minerals, and has undergone investigation

for its potential in famine relief (Smith et al 1996).

Punarnava¯, ‘once again new’ 263

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Svarasa: fresh herb, 10–15 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: dried root, 60–120 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: dried root, 1:3, 45%; 2–5 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Chandan BK, Sharma AK, Anand KK 1991 Boerhavia diffusa:

a study of its hepatoprotective activity. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology 31(3):299–307

Chude MA, Orisakwe OE, Afonne OJ et al 2001 Hypoglycaemic

effect of the aqueous extract of Boerhavia diffusa leaves. Indian

Journal of Pharmacology 33:215–216

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New

Delhi, p 57–58

Kapoor LD 1990 CRC handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants.

CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 79

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 2045–2047

Mehrotra S, Mishra KP, Maurya R et al 2002 Immunomodulation

by ethanolic extract of Boerhaavia diffusa roots. International

Immunopharmacology 2(7):987–996

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by A.K.

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 205, 207

Sharma K, Vali Pasha K, Dandiya PC 1990 Is Boerhavia diffusa

linn. (Punarnava) an antistress drug? Indian Pharmacological

Society, 23rd Annual Conference, Dec. 6–8, Bombay

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 118–119, 179, 246, 346, 347,

357

Singh A, Singh RG, Singh RH et al 1986 Effect of Boerhavia diffusa

(Punarnava) in experimental pyelonephritis in albino rats.

Indian Pharmacological Society, 19th Annual Conference,

October 24–26, Srinagar

Smith GC, Clegg MS, Keen CL, Grivetti LE 1996 Mineral values of

selected plant foods common to southern Burkina Faso and to

Niamey, Niger, West Africa. International Journal of Food

Sciences and Nutrition 47(1):41–53

Sohni YR, Bhatt RM 1996 Activity of a crude extract formulation

in experimental hepatic amoebiasis and in immunomodulation

studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

54(2–3):119–124

Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 ´Sa¯ran.

gadhara sam. hita¯: a treatise on

Ayurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi, p 71, 236, 269

Srikanthamurthy KR 2000 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 2.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 408, 481

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 265

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 1. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 281–283

Williamson EM (ed) 2002 Major herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill

Livingstone, London, p 76–77

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 547–548

264 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany: ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯ is an erect shrub attaining

a height of between 60 and 120 cm, with a short

woody stem and numerous irregularly angled

branches covered in a fine grey pubescence. The leaves

are simple, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate,

margins wavy and membranous, glabrous above

and mottled with greyish-coloured patches, pale green

below with whitish appressed trichomes. The flowers

are white to purple in colour, borne in elongated terminal

or axillary racemes, giving rise to indehiscent

pods with six to eight segments, each segment containing

one seed. ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯ is found throughout tropical

India into the lower portions of the Himalayan

range, and it and related species are also found in

regions of China (e.g. Desmodium styracifolium, D. pulchellum),

S.E. Asia and Africa (D. adscendens). The

meaning of its Sanskrit name ‘leaves like ´Sala’ suggests

that its leaf structure is similar to those of the

tree Shorea robusta (Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Warrier

et al 1994).

Part used: Root.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: tikta, madhura

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a, guru

● Karma: stambhana, chardinigrahan. a, jvaraghna,

chedana, ka¯sahara, sva¯sahara, mu¯travirecana,

vis.aghna, hr . daya, rasa¯yana, tridos.aghna (Dash 1991,

Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Srikanthamurthy 2001,

Warrier et al 1994).

Constituents: The limited amount of constituent

information for ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯ includes the presence of

alkaloids, pterocarpenoids (gangetin, gangetinin and

desmodin), triterpenoid glycosides (dehydrosoyasaponin

I, soyasaponin I, and soyasaponin III), and

flavone and isoflavanoid glycosides (Ghosh &

Anandakumar 1981, Govindarajan et al 2003,

McManus et al 1993).

Medical research:

● In vitro: antispasmodic (McManus et al 1993),

antioxidant (Govindarajan et al 2003), paracidal

(Iwu et al 1992).

● In vivo: paracidal (Singh 2005); anti-ulcerogenic

(Dharmani et al 2005); anti-anaphylaxis (Addy

& Dzandu 1986); CNS depressant (Ghosal &

Bhattacharya 1972; Jabbar et al 2001); analgesic

(Rathi et al 2004); anti-inflammatory (Ghosh

& Anandakumar 1981; Rathi et al 2004); analgesic

(Ghosh & Anandakumar 1981; Jabbar et al

2001); hypocholesterolaemic, antioxidant (Kurian

et al 2005).

Toxicity: No data found.

Indications: Vomiting, haemorrhoids, diarrhoea,

dysentery, intestinal parasites, fever, cough, asthma,

tuberculosis, allergies, dysuria, oedema, cardiac debility

and cardiopathies, inflammatory joint disease,

asthenia and emaciation, diabetes, epilepsy, psychosis,

depression, anxiety.

Contraindications: None.

Medicinal uses: ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯ is valued in A¯ yurvedic

medicine for its capacity to reduce vitiations of all

three dos.as, and is often used in severe conditions

such as typhoid fever and tuberculosis when all other

treatments fail (Tillotson 2001). To this extent it is

used in many formulations to equalise the activities of

the different constituents. ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯ is particularly

valued in asthmatic conditions, which is evidenced by

the experimental data, which demonstrate antiinflammatory,

antihistamine and antispasmodic

S´ a¯laparn. ¯ı, ‘leaves like S´a-la’

BOTANICAL NAME: Desmodium gangeticum, Fabaceae

OTHER NAMES: Vidarigandha¯ (S); Salpan, Salwan (H); Pulladi, Orila (T)

´Sa¯laparn. ı¯, ‘leaves like sala’ 265

properties. It is also considered an important remedy

for the heart, and is a key constituent in Da´samu¯la

(‘ten roots’ formula), which has alterative and antiinflammatory

properties, and Mahana¯ra¯yan.

a taila,

which is used in myalgia, rheumatism and mental disorders.

In the treatment of severe va¯ttika fever the

´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯ recommends a decoction of

equal parts ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯, Bala¯, Gud.u¯cı¯, Dra¯ks.

a¯, and

Sa¯riva¯ (Srikanthamurthy 1984). In the treatment of

malabsorptive syndromes with gastrointestinal colic

the ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯ recommends a decoction

of equal parts ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯, Bala¯, Bilva,

Dha¯nyaka and ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯ (Srikanthamurthy 1984).

The Cakradatta mentions the benefit of ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯

as an ingredient in Bala¯dya ghr.

ta in the treatment of

fever, consumption, cough, headache and chest pain,

taken with twice its quantity of milk (Sharma 2002).

The Cakradatta also mentions ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯ as a constituent

of Maha¯pai´sa¯cika ghr. ta, used in the treatment

of psychosis, epilepsy and seizure, and to

enhance the intellect and memory in children

(Sharma 2002). In va¯ttika afflictions of the heart the

Cakradatta recommends that ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯ be decocted

in milk and taken internally (Sharma 2002).

Generally speaking, ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯ combines well with

botanicals such as Arjuna and Bala¯ in diseases of the

heart. ´Sa¯laparn.

ı¯ is said to protect the fetus in threatened

miscarriage, and is applied as paste with

Parus.

aka (Grewia asiatica) over the umbilical region,

pelvis and vulva during labour to ensure an easy delivery

(Sharma 2002). In Chinese medicine Guang Jin

Qian (D. styraciflium) is used in cholelithiasis and jaundice

(damp heat of the liver and gall bladder), and Pai

Chien Cao (D. pulchellum) is used in malaria (Tillotson

2001).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 2–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 30–90 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: dried root, 1:3, 45%; 2–5 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Addy ME, Dzandu WK 1986 Dose-response effects of Desmodium

adscendens aqueous extract on histamine response, content

and anaphylactic reactions in the guinea pig. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology 18(1):13–20

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New

Delhi, p 20

Dharmani P, Mishra PK, Maurya R et al 2005 Desmodium

gangeticum: a potent anti-ulcer agent. Indian Journal of

Experimental Biology 43(6):517–521

Ghosal S, Bhattacharya SK 1972 Desmodium alkaloids. II.

Chemical and pharmacological evaluation of D. gangeticum.

Planta Medica 22(4):434–440

Ghosh D, Anandakumar A 1981 Anti-inflammatory and analgesic

activities of gangetin – a pterocarpenoid from Desmodium

gangeticum. Indian Journal of Pharmacy 15(4):391–402

Govindarajan R, Rastogi S, Vijayakumar M et al 2003 Studies on

the anti-oxidant activities of Desmodium gangeticum.

Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 26(10):1424–1427

Iwu MM, Jackson JE, Tally JD, Klayman DL 1992 Evaluation of

plant extracts for antileishmanial activity using a mechanismbased

radiorespirometric microtechnique (RAM). Planta

Medica 58(5):436–441

Jabbar S, Khan MT, Choudhuri MS 2001 The effects of aqueous

extracts of Desmodium gangeticum DC. (Leguminosae) on the

central nervous system. Die Pharmazie 56(6):506–508

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 758–759

Kurian GA, Philip S, Varghese T 2005 Effect of aqueous extract of

the Desmodium gangeticum DC root in the severity of myocardial

infarction. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 97(3): 457–461

McManus OB, Harris GH, Giangiacomo KM et al 1993 An activator

of calcium-dependent potassium channels isolated from a

medicinal herb. Biochemistry 32(24):6128–6133

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by A.K.

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay

Rathi A, Rao CV, Ravishankar B et al 2004 Anti-inflammatory and

anti-nociceptive activity of the water decoction Desmodium

gangeticum. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95(2–3):259–263

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta. Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 143, 188, 200, 587

Singh N, Mishra PK, Kapil A et al 2005 Efficacy of Desmodium

gangeticum extract and its fractions against experimental visceral

leishmaniasis. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

98(1–2):83–88

Srikanthamurthy KR 1984 ´Sa¯ran . gadhara sam. hita¯: a treatise on

Ayurveda. Chaukhamba Orientalia, Varanasi, p 58, 64

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 232

Tillotson A 2001 The One Earth herbal sourcebook. Twin Streams

(Kensington), New York, p 200–201

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 2. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 319

266 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany:

● Canscora decussata is an erect branching annual

attaining a height of up 60 cm, the stems fourwinged

with decussate branches. The leaves are

simple, ovate or lanceolate, sessile, and oppositely

arranged. The flowers are pink or white, cylindrical

and tubular with four lobes, giving rise to

cylindrical membranous capsules containing

numerous small brown seeds. C. decussata is

found in moist areas up to 1500 m in elevation,

throughout tropical India, Burma, Sri Lanka,

Madagascar and Africa (Kirtikar & Basu 1935a,

Warrier et al 1994a).

● Convolvulus pluricaulis is a prostrate or suberect

spreading hairy perennial shrub. The leaves are

ovate-lanceolate to linear, and the flowers are white

or pinkish, solitary or paired. The fruit capsules are

oblong-globose, pale brown, containing tiny brown

seeds. C. pluricaulis is common in dry, rocky or sandy

locations (Mahashwari 1963).

● Evolvulus alsinoides is a small, pubescent

procumbent perennial with a small woody root

stock, with simple elliptic-oblong or oblong-ovate

leaves, alternately arranged. The flowers are light

blue in colour, solitary or in pairs, borne in the leaf

axils, giving rise to globose four-valved capsules.

E. alsinoides is found throughout India in exposed

areas up to 1800 m in elevation (Kirtikar & Basu

1935b, Warrier et al 1995).

● Clitoria ternatea is a perennial climber with

cylindrical stems and branches, with compound

leaves, imparipinnate, with five to seven leaflets.

The flowers are blue or white with an orange centre,

solitary or axillary, followed by flattened pods

containing 6–10 yellowish-brown seeds. C. ternatea

is found throughout India and SE Asia (Kirtikar &

Basu 1935c, Warrier 1994b).

Part used: Root, whole plant.

Dravygun. a:

Canscora decussata

● Rasa: tikta, kat.u, ka´sa¯ya

● Vipa¯ka: guru

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a

● Karma: dı¯pana, bhedana, kr. mighna,

raktaprasa¯dana, varnya, sandha¯nı¯ya, kus.t.

haghna,

vis.aghna, medhya, vajı¯karan. a, rasa¯yana, kaphahara,

tridos.ahara (Kirtikar & Basu 1935a, Warrier et al

1994a).

Convolvulus pluricaulis, C. microphyllus

● Rasa: tikta, ka´sa¯ya

● Vipa¯ka: guru

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a

● Karma: dı ¯pana, bhedana, kr . mighna,

varnya, kus.t.

haghna, sandha¯nı ¯ya, vis.aghna,

medhya, vajı ¯karan. a, rasa¯yana, tridos.ahara

(Srikanthamurthy 2001).

´San.khapus.pı¯, ‘conch flower’

BOTANICAL NAMES: Various species are cited in various texts for San.khapus.pı¯ ,

including Canscora decussata (Gentianaceae), Convolvulus pluricaulis,

C. microphyllus and Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae), and Clitoria

ternatea (Papilionaceae).

OTHER NAMES:

● Canscora decussata: S´ an.khin¯ı (S); Kalameg, Shankhauli, Shamkhaphuli (H)

● Convolvulus pluricaulis, C. microphyllus: S´ an. ka¯hva¯, Man.galyakusuma¯ (S);

Shankhahuli (H)

● Evolvulus alsinoides: Vis.n.

ukra¯n. ta¯ (S); Shyamakranta (H); Vishnukiranti (T)

● Clitoria ternatea: Girikar.n.

ika¯, Apara¯jita¯ (S); Aparjit (H); Kannikkoti,

Girikanni (T)

´San.khapus.pı¯, ‘conch flower’ 267

Evolvulus alsinoides

● Rasa: tikta, kat.u

● Vipa¯ka: guru

● Vı¯rya: ´sita

● Karma: gra¯hı¯, jvaraghna, kr . mighna, chedana, varnya,

vis.aghna, medhya, vajı¯karan. a, pittahara, tridos.ahara

(Kirtikar & Basu 1935b, Warrier et al 1995).

Clitoria ternatea (blue-flowered variety)

● Rasa: tikta

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: ´sita

● Karma: bhedana, kr . mighna, ka¯sahara, sva¯sahara,

´sotahara, vis.aghna, medhya, vajı ¯karan. a, caks.us.ya,

pittahara, tridos.aghna (Kirtikar & Basu 1935c,

Warrier et al 1994b).

Constituents:

● Canscora decussata: Among the limited number

of constituents described for C. decussata are

xanthones, loliolide, gluanone, canscoradione,

friedelin and sterols (Ghosal et al 1976, 1978,

Yoganarasimhan 2000a).

● Convolvulus pluricaulis: no data found.

● Evolvulus alsinoides: alkaloids (Yoganarasimhan

2000b).

● Clitoria ternatea: The blue-flowered variety

contains malonylated flavonol glycosides such

as kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin. Unlike the

white-flowered variety the blue-flowered Clitoria

contains anthocyanins ternatins C1–C5, D3 and

preternatins A3 and C4) in the flowers. The seeds are

stated to contain high levels of oligosaccharides

(Kazuma et al 2003a, b, Revilleza et al 1990,

Terahara et al 1996).

Medical research:

Canscora decussata

● In vitro: immunostimulant (Madan & Ghosh

2002), antimycobacterial (Ghosal et al 1978).

● In vivo: anticonvulsant (Dikshit et al 1972).

Convolvulus pluricaulis

● In vivo: anti-ulcerogenic (Sairam et al 2001).

Evolvulus alsinoides

● In vivo: anti-inflammatory (Ganju et al 2003).

Clitoria ternatea

● In vivo: nootropic (Jain et al 2003; Rai et al 2001,

2002); anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, anti-ulcerogenic

(Jain et al 2003); anti-inflammatory, analgesic

(Devi et al 2003).

Toxicity: No data found for any of the species described.

Indications:

● Canscora decussata: Intestinal parasites, fever,

tuberculosis, ascites, leucoderma, leprosy, poor

memory, epilepsy, psychosis, unconsciousness,

spiritual possession, nervous exhaustion, wounds,

ulceration.

● Convolvulus pluricaulis: Poor digestion,

intestinal parasites, skin diseases, poisoning,

epilepsy, poor memory, psychosis.

● Evolvulus alsinoides: Diarrhoea, dysentery, fever,

bronchitis, asthma, haemorrhage, poor memory,

epilepsy, alopecia, premature greying, debility.

● Clitoria ternatea: Colic, hepatosplenomegaly,

intestinal parasites, fever, bronchitis, asthma,

tuberculosis, strangury, ascites, skin diseases, skin

eruptions, burning sensations, poor memory,

headache, otalgia.

Contraindications: All species of ´San.khapus.pı¯ may

interact with antidepressant, antipsychotic and antiseizure

medication.

Medicinal uses: ´San.khapus.pı¯ provides an interesting

challenge for the herbalist given that at least four

different species are called such. Although the reasons

for this variability are not entirely known, it is likely

that these different species are a manifestation of

regional availability, and the fact that the term

´San.khapus.pı¯ is a more or less general term that is synonymous

with plants that have a medhya property, in

much the same way that the term Bra¯hmı¯ is used to

denote the same. In the state of Kerala, for example,

local vaidyas make use of Clitoria ternatea as ´San.khapus.

pı¯, even though it also known by other names such

as Girikar.n.

ika¯ and Apara¯jita¯ (Warrier et al 1994b).

In contrast, it is Convolvulus pluricaulis that is listed as

officinal in the Ayurvedic Formulary of India (1978),

268 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

with Evolvulus alsinoides and Clitoria ternatea listed as

alternatives. Both Warrier et al (1994a) and Kirtikar &

Basu (1935a) indicate, however, that only Canscora

decussata is properly called ´San.khapus.pı¯, but if we are

to take the meaning of ´San.khapus.pı¯ literally, a comparison

of the various flowers would indicate that only

Clitoria ternatea actually looks like a conch. These

inconsistencies are not simply the result of academic

error, but are a reflection of actual usage and thus

´San.khapus.pı¯ will probably continue to mean several

different species of plant among A¯ yurvedic physicians.

In one recent study of ´San.khapus.pı¯ found in the

market place in northern India, nine samples were

found to be Convolvulus microphyllus, one was Evolvulus

alsinoides, one sample was a mixture of three different

species including E. alsinoides, C. microphyllus and

Amberboa divaricata, and two samples were Indigofera

cordifolia (Singh & Viswanathan 2000). Although each

plant listed as being ´San.khapus.pı¯ has medhya

rasa¯yana properties under their own names, including

Nı¯lı¯, they also contain different secondary indications

and may not be interchangeable. Thus a little

caution is recommended when using ´San.khapus.pı¯,

and to ensure strict quality control a botanical voucher

should be included with any order. In the Cakradatta

the fresh juice of ´San.khapus.pı¯ is mixed with the juices

of Bra¯hmı¯, Ku¯s.ma¯n.d.

a, Vaca¯ and Kus.

t.

ha, mixed with

honey and used in the treatment of unma¯da (‘psychosis’)

(Sharma 2002). In the treatment of

apasma¯ra (‘epilepsy’) the Cakradatta recommends

Bra¯hmı¯ghr. ta, prepared by cooking one part aged

ghr. ta in four parts fresh juice of Bra¯hmı¯, mixed with

the powders of Vaca¯, Kus.

t.

ha and ´San.khapus.pı¯

(Sharma 2002). The Cakradatta also singles out a

paste of ´San.khapus.pı¯ as a particularly potent medhya

rasa¯yana, to enhance the intellect and promote

long life, to improve digestion and enhance physical

strength, and to improve the voice and lustre of the

skin, along with other herbs such as Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯,

Gud.u¯cı¯ and Yas.t.

imadhu (Sharma 2002). ´San.khapus.

pı¯ combined with equal parts powders of Udı¯cya,

Apa¯ma¯rga, Vid.

an.ga, Vaca¯, Harı¯takı¯, Kus.

t.

ha and

´Sata¯varı¯, is stated by the Cakradatta as making one

capable of ‘ . . . memorizing one thousand stanzas in

only three days’ (Sharma 2002). Kirtikar & Basu

(1935a) state that the fresh juice of Canscora decussata

is used ‘ . . . in all cases of insanity, in doses of about

one ounce’. Both the root and herb of Evolvulus

alsinoides is considered to be an important remedy for

diarrhoea, the leaf used as an infusion in doses of about

100 mL (Kirtikar & Basu 1935b). The leaf of E. alsinoides

can also be smoked (dhu¯ma) in the treatment of

chronic bronchitis and asthma (Kirtikar & Basu

1935b). Kirtikar & Basu (1935c) state that the blueflowered

Clitoria ternatea displays all the medicinal

properties of the white-flowered variety, but is also

vajı¯karan. a. The root of C. ternatea is stated to be

diuretic and laxative, the root juice used in chronic

bronchitis, as nasya in headache, and as a decoction in

irritation of the bladder and urethra (Kirtikar & Basu

1935c). The warmed juice of the leaves of C. ternatea

mixed with salt is used as an analgesic in otalgia and

lymphadenopathy, and the seeds are stated to be

cathartic and can cause griping, attributed to the

oligosaccharides (Kirtikar & Basu 1935c).

Dosage: general guidelines for the root of all four

species.

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 30–90 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: dried root, 1:3, 45%; 2–5 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Devi BP, Boominathan R, Mandal SC 2003 Anti-inflammatory, analgesic

and antipyretic properties of Clitoria ternatea root.

Fitoterapia 74(4):345–349

Dikshit SK, Tiwari PV, Dixit SP 1972 Anticonvulsant activity of

Canscora decussata. Indian Journal of Physiology and

Pharmacology 16(1):81–83

Ganju L, Karan D, Chanda S et al 2003 Immunomodulatory effects

of agents of plant origin. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy

57(7):296–300

Ghosal S, Singh AK, Chaudhuri RK 1976 Chemical constituents of

Gentianaceae XX: natural occurrence of (-)-loliolide in

Canscora decussata. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences

65(10):1549–1451

Ghosal S, Biswas K, Chaudhuri RK 1978 Chemical constituents of

Gentianaceae XXIV: antimycobacterium tuberculosis activity of

naturally occurring xanthones and synthetic analogs. Journal

of Pharmaceutical Sciences 67(5):721–722

Jain NN, Ohal CC, Shroff SK et al 2003 Clitoria ternatea and the CNS.

Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 75(3):529–536

Kazuma K, Noda N, Suzuki M. 2003a Flavonoid composition related

to petal color in different lines of Clitoria ternatea.

Phytochemistry 64(6):1133–1139

Kazuma K, Noda N, Suzuki M 2003b Malonylated flavonol glycosides

from the petals of Clitoria ternatea. Phytochemistry

62(2):229–237

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935a Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1659, 1660

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935b Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1738–1739

´San.khapus.pı¯, ‘conch flower’ 269

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935c Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 803

Madan B, Ghosh B 2002 Canscora decussata promotes adhesion of

neutrophils to human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Journal

of Ethnopharmacology 79(2):229–235

Maheshwari JK 1963 The flora of Delhi. Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research, New Delhi p 239

Rai KS, Murthy KD, Karanth KS, Rao MS 2001 Clitoria ternatea

(Linn) root extract treatment during growth spurt period

enhances learning and memory in rats. Indian Journal of

Physiology and Pharmacology 45(3):305–313

Rai KS, Murthy KD, Karanth KS et al 2002 Clitoria ternatea root

extract enhances acetylcholine content in rat hippocampus.

Fitoterapia 73(7–8):685–689

Revilleza MJ, Mendoza EM, Raymundo LC 1990 Oligosaccharides in

several Philippine indigenous food legumes: determination,

localization and removal. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition

40(1):83–93

Sairam K, Rao CV, Goel RK 2001 Effect of Convolvulus pluricaulis

Chois on gastric ulceration and secretion in rats. Indian

Journal of Experimental Biology 39(4):350–354

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta: Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 184, 194, 625, 626

Singh HB, Viswanathan MV 2000 Identification of market samples

of crude drug Sankhapushpi. National Seminar on the

Frontiers of Research and Development in Medicinal Plants,

September 16–18, Lucknow. Central Institute of Medicinal

and Aromatic Plants, Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research, India

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 272

Terahara N, Oda M, Matsui T et al 1996 Five new anthocyanins,

ternatins A3, B4, B3, B2, and D2, from Clitoria ternatea flowers.

Journal of Natural Products 59(2):139–144

Terahara N, Toki K, Saito N et al 1998 Eight new anthocyanins, ternatins

C1-C5 and D3 and preternatins A3 and C4 from young

clitoria ternatea flowers. Journal of Natural Products

61(11):1361–1367

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994a Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 1. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 361

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994b Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 2. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 129

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1995 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 3. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 11

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000a Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 100

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000b Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 223

270 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany: ´Sata¯varı¯ is a climbing shrub attaining

a height of between 1 and 3 m, with a stout and creeping

root stock, annual woody cylindrical stems with

recurved or straight spines, and succulent tuberous

roots that grow in clusters at the base of the stem. The

young stems are quite brittle and delicate, and the

leaves are actually flattened lateral shoots or scales

called cladodes, arranged in tufts of two to six at each

node. The flowers are white and fragrant, solitary or in

fascicles, simple or branched racemes, giving rise to

a globular fruit that is purplish-black when ripe containing

seeds with a hard, brittle covering. ´Sata¯varı¯ is

found throughout tropical India into the Himalayan

range up to 1400 m in elevation, extending into SE

Asia, Australia and Africa (Kirtikar & Basu 1935,

Warrier et al 1994).

Part used: Roots.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: tikta, madhura

● Vipa¯ka: guru

● Vı¯rya: ´sita, snigdha

● Karma: ´sulapra´samana, stambhana, mu¯travirecana,

´sotahara, stanyajanana, praja¯stha¯pana, hr. daya,

vedana¯stha¯pana, caks.us.ya, medhya, vajı ¯karan. a, balya,

rasa¯yana, va¯tapittahara (Srikanthamurthy 2001,

Warrier et al 1994).

Constituents: ´Sata¯varı¯ has been found to contain

steroidal glycosides including shatavarins I–IV, as well

as diosgenin and various sterols. Other constituents

include the alkaloid asparagamine A, flavonoids such

as quercitin, rutin and hyperoside, an isoflavone and

a mucilage (Saxena & Chourasia 2001; Williamson

2002).

Medical research:

● In vitro: positively ionotropic/chronotropic (Roy et

al 1971); antioxidant (Kamat et al 2000); antimicrobial

(Mandal et al 2000b).

● In vivo: anti-ulcerogenic (Datta et al 2002; Sairam

et al 2003), antitussive (Mandal et al 2000a), bronchodilatory

(Roy et al 1971), galactagogue (Sabins

et al 1968), dopaminergic antagonist (Dalvi et al

1990); hypotensive (Roy et al 1971), anti-adhesion

(Rege et al 1989), hepatoprotective (Muruganadan

et al 2000), antitumour (Rao 1981), immunostimulant

(Dahanukar et al 1986, Thatte et al 1987).

● Human trials: ´Sata¯varı¯ root powder was found to

significantly reduce the half-time of gastric emptying

in healthy human volunteers, comparable with

metoclopramide (Dalvi et al 1990); ´Sata¯varı¯ root

powder relieved the symptoms of duodenal ulceration

in the majority of the patients studied (Singh

& Singh 1986). A combination remedy containing

´Sata¯varı¯ (Ricalex tablets) was shown to increase

milk production in women complaining of deficient

milk secretion (Joglekar et al 1967).

Toxicity: The systemic administration of high doses of

various extracts of A. racemosus did not produce any

abnormality in the behaviour pattern of mice and rats

(Jetmalani et al 1967). Asparagus species may cause

delayed-type cell-mediated and IgE-mediated reactions

in sensitive individuals (Tabar et al 2003).

Indications: Dyspepsia, gastric and duodenal ulceration,

intestinal colic, diarrhoea, hepatitis and

hepatomegaly, haemorrhoids, pharyngitis, cough,

bronchitis, asthma, tuberculosis, strangury, urethritis,

cystitis, nephropathy, leucorrhoea, amenorrhoea,

dysmenorrhoea, agalactia, female and male infertility,

threatened miscarriage, menopause, epilepsy,

fatigue, asthenia, cardiopathies, tumours, surgical

adhesions.

´Sata¯

varı¯

,

‘

one hundred roots’

Om Tat Sat

                                                        

(Continued...) 

(My humble salutations to   Sreeman Todd Caldecott, Elsevier’s Health Sciences and others other eminent medical scholars and doctors   for the collection)