Ayurveda the divine science of life -18

Ayurveda the divine science of life

  PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany: Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ is a slender herbaceous

creeping perennial, with long stems, rooting at the

nodes. The leaves are obicularly reniform, crenate, on

long petioles. The small flowers are white, pink or purple,

borne in fascicled umbels, giving rise to a fleshy

compressed fruit with two mericarps (Kirtikar & Basu

1935, Warrier et al 1994).

Part used: Leaves.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: tikta, kat.u

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: ´sita

● Karma: dı ¯pana, jvaraghna, raktaprasa¯dana,

mu¯travirecana, kus.t.

aghna, hr . daya, medhya, rasa¯yana.

● Prabha¯va: also called Bra¯hmı ¯ (consort of Brahma¯)

because it aids in the development of Brahman, the

Supreme Reality, strengthening nervous function,

and promoting longevity, intelligence and memory

(Dash 1991, Dash & Junius 1983, Frawley & Lad

1986, Srikanthamurthy 1994, 2001, Warrier et al

1994).

Constituents: Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ contains a variety

of constituents of which the triterpenoids have

attracted the most attention from researchers. These

include asiaticoside A and B, madecassoside,

braminoside, brahmiside, brahminoside, thankuniside,

isothankuniside, as well as triterpene acids such

as asiatic acid, 6-hydroxy asiatic acid, madecassic

acid, madasiatic acid, brahmic acid, isobrahmic acid,

betulinic acid and isothankunic acid. Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯

also contains flavones, including quercitin,

kaempferol and astragalin, the alkaloid hydrocotylin,

and phytosterols stigmasterol and sitosterol. The fresh

and recently dried plant contains an essential oil

comprising, primarily, sesquiterpenoids such as

-caryophyllene, -humulene and germacrene.

Additional constituents include tannins, amino acids,

B-complex vitamins and a resin (Heinerman 1984,

Williamson 2002, Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vitro: neuroprotective (Mook-Jung et al 1999),

antitumuor (Babu et al 1995, Lin et al 1972).

● In vivo: nootropic, anxiolytic (Leung & Foster

1996); GABA-nergic (Chatterjee et al 1992);

antimicrobial (Oliver-Bever 1986), CNS-depressant

(Ramaswamy et al 1970); antiulcer (Chatterjee et al

1992); antioxidant (Shukla et al 1999b); antiinflammatory

(Chen et al 1999); vulnerary

(Maquart et al 1999, Shukla et al 1999a, Suguna

et al 1996).

● Human trials: Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ promoted significant

improvements in cooperation, memory,

concentration, attention, vocabulary and social

adjustment in mentally challenged children,

compared to placebo (Appa Rao 1973);

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ significantly reduced the number

of circulating endothelial cells asiatica in patients

with post-phlebitic syndrome (Montecchio et al

1991) and significantly and safely promoted

improvement in patients with chronic venous

hypertensive microangiopathy (Cesarone et al

1994). Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ was found to significantly

reduce ankle oedema and foot swelling, and

improve capillary filtration rate and microcirculatory

parameters in patients with venous insufficiency

(Cesarone et al 1992). A titrated extract of

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ promoted clinical improvement

in 5 of 12 patients with chronic hepatic disorders

(Darnis et al 1979). Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ was efficacious

in the treatment of chronic or subchronic

systemic scleroderma with limited skin involvement,

and in progressive and/or advanced focal

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯, ‘frog-leaved’

BOTANICAL NAME: Centella asiatica, Apiaceae

OTHER NAMES: Bra¯hmı¯, ‘consort of Brahma¯‘, Brahma¯man.

d.

uki, ‘frog-leaved

Brahma¯‘ (S); Bemgsag (H); Vallarai (T); Indian Penny-wort (E); Luei Gong

Gen (C); ‘Gotu Kola’ is derived from the Sinhala name

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯, ‘frog-leaved’ 241

scleroderma (Guseva et al 1998). In the treatment

of keloids madecassol (asiaticoside)

extracted from Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ compared

favourably with compression bandaging, and provided

more lasting results than either intralesional

cortisone or radiation therapy (Bosse et al

1979); a topical extract of Centella asiatica was

found to be useful in Pseudofolliculitis barbae

(razor bumps) when used as a shaving lubricant

(Spencer 1985).

Toxicity: No relevant data found.

Indications: Gastric ulceration and inflammation,

dysentery, jaundice, hepatitis, fever, bronchitis,

alopecia, eczema, psoriasis, leprous ulcers, venereal

diseases, burns, anxiety, poor memory, ADD/ADHD,

senility, Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, chronic

fatigue, premature aging, hypertension, anaemia,

diabetes, oedema, varicosities, phlebitis, venous

insufficiency, immunodeficiency, autoimmune disorders,

cancer.

Contraindications: A water-soluble fraction of

Centella asiatica was reported to inhibit hepatic

enzymes responsible for barbiturate metabolism

(Leung & Foster 1996), and has been found to have

a GABAnergic activity (Chatterjee et al 1992).

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ is thus contraindicated with the concurrent

use of drugs such as benzodiazepines, barbituates

or antiepileptics. Contact dermatitis has been

reported in some patients using preparations of fresh

or dried parts of the plant (Eun & Lee 1985). Although

the triterpene constituents have shown to lack

any kind of teratogenic effect (Bosse et al 1979),

relaxation of the rat uterus has been documented

for brahmoside and brahminoside, and therefore

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ is thus avoided in pregnancy

(Ramaswamy et al 1970). Hyperglycaemic and hypercholesterolaemic

effects have been reported for asiaticoside

in humans (Newall et al 1996), and caution

should be exercised with the concomitant use of

hypolipidaemic and hypoglycaemic therapies.

Frawley & Lad (1986) report that high doses of

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.ı¯ may cause a loss of consciousness

and headaches and that they may aggravate pruritis.

The majority of A¯ yurvedic texts tend to indicate that

Man.d.u¯kaparn.

ı¯ is contraindicated in va¯ttika conditions

(Warrier et al 1995).

Medicinal uses: Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ is a common

green vegetable throughout Southeast Asia, from

India to the Phillipines, sometimes eaten raw as a

side dish, or prepared as a juice. It is said to be a

favourite food of elephants in Sri Lanka. Modern clinical

research has supported many of the time-honoured

properties attributed to Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯. Plant

geneticists have recently termed Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ as

an ‘araliaceous hydrocotyloid’ (Downie et al 2000),

for although it is a member of the Apiaceae, it bears

many similarities both botanically and in therapeutic

action with other genera of the Araliaceae, such as

Ginseng (Panax ginseng). For internal administration

the fresh plant is considered best, either as a juice, or

more recently, as a fresh plant tincture. Dried plant

preparations are used in A¯ yurveda and should not be

considered as useless; however care should be taken

to carefully source the herb as Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯

grows quite well along the edges of rivers and sewer

outfalls and could be contaminated with heavy metals,

faecal coliforms or parasites. Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ is a

useful treatment in a range of mental and cerebrovascular

conditions including epilepsy, stroke,

dementia, memory loss, poor concentration, and

attention deficit disorder. Some texts state that

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.ı¯ is the same as Bra¯hmı¯ (Bacopa monniera)

in action, some even suggesting that they are

one and the same. They are, however, different plants

with a different range of activities, but both are

active as agents to enhance mental function.

Generally speaking, Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ is used in cognitive

dysfunction where pitta is the predominant

dos.a, best used as the fresh juice, 25 mL twice daily.

In skin conditions such as psoriasis and eczema,

benefit can be obtained by using Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯

with hepatics such as Bhr.n . gara¯ja, Mañjis.t.

ha¯,

Da¯ruharidra¯ and Yellowdock (Rumex crispus).

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ may also be used topically in salves

and balms to treat chapped lips, herpetic lesions, leprosy,

scrofula, seborrheic dermatitis, ‘dish pan’

hands, eczema, psoriasis and insect bites and stings.

As an alternative to antibiotics, Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯

could be taken internally with Kat.uka and

Bhu¯nimba, or Western herbs such as Goldenseal

(Hydrastis canadensis root) and Purple Coneflower

(Echinacea spp.) in the treatment of infectious conditions.

For wounds Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ can be combined

with Comfrey (Symphytum officinalis root), applied

topically and taken internally to speed healing and

242 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

recovery. Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯, along with other

immunomodulants such as Huang qi (Astragalus

membranaceus) and A´svagandha¯, should be considered

an adjunct in the treatment of immunodeficiency

diseases. The As.t.

a¯ñga Hr.

daya mentions the

usefulness of Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯ in the treatment of

sannipa¯taja udara (abdominal enlargement in

which all three dos.as are active), after purgative

therapies have been initiated, taken as the fresh juice

for a period of a month (Srikanthamurthy 1995).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–10 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Svarasa: 25 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Pha¯n.t.

a: 30–120 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: fresh plant 1:2, 95% alcohol; dry plant

1:3, 50% alcohol, 1–5 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Ghr. ta: 2 gtt. s.d. taken as nasya for nervous

disorders.

● Taila: ad lib. in abhyan . ga etc. for nervous system

disorders.

REFERENCES

Appa Rao MVR, Srinivasan K, Rao KT 1973 The effect of

Mandookaparni (Centella asiatica) on the general mental ability

(medhya) of mentally retarded children. Journal of Indian

Medicine 8:9–16

Babu TD, Kuttan G, Padikkala J 1995 Cytotoxic and antitumor properties

of certain taxa of Umbelliferae with special reference to

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

48(1):53–57

Bosse JP, Papillon J, Frenette G et al 1979 Clinical study of a

new antikeloid agent. Annals of Plastic Surgery 3(1):

13–21

Cesarone MR, Laurora G, De Sanctis MT, Belcaro G 1992 Activity of

Centella asiatica in venous insufficiency. Minerva

Cardioangiologica 40(4):137–143

Cesarone MR, Laurora G, De Sanctis MT et al 1994 The microcirculatory

activity of Centella asiatica in venous insufficiency.

A double-blind study. Minerva Cardioangiologica

42(6):299–304

Chatterjee TK, Cakraborty A, Pathak M, Sengupta GC 1992 Effects

of plant extract Centella asiatica (Linn.) on cold restraint stress

ulcer in rats. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology

30(10):889–891

Chen YJ, Dai YS, Chen BF et al 1999 The effect of tetrandrine

and extracts of Centella asiatica on acute radiation dermatitis

in rats. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin

22(7):703–706

D’Amelio F 1987 Gotu Kola. Cosmetics and Toiletries

102(6):49–50

Darnis F, Orcel L, De Saint-Maur PP, Mamou P 1979 Use of a

titrated extract of Centella asiatica in chronic hepatic disorders.

La Semaine Des Hopitaux 55(37–38):1749–1750

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New

Delhi, p 102

Dash B, Junius M 1983 A handbook of Ayurveda. Concept

Publishing, New Delhi, p 103

Downie S, Watson MF, Spalik K, Katz-Downie DS 2000 Molecular

systematics of Old World Apioideae (Apiaceae): relationships

among some members of tribe Peucedaneae sensu lato, the

placement of several island-endemic species, and resolution

within the apioid superclade. Canadian Journal of Botany

78:506–528

Eun HC, Lee AY 1985 Contact dermatitis due to madecassol.

Contact Dermatitis 13(5):310–313

Frawley D, Lad V 1986 The yoga of herbs: an Ayurvedic guide to

herbal medicine. Lotus Press, Santa Fe, p 170–171

Guseva NG, Starovoitova MN, Mach ES 1998 Madecassol treatment

of systemic and localized scleroderma. Terapevticheskii Arkhiv

70(5):58–61

Heinerman J 1984 An herb for our time: the scientific rediscovery of

Gotu Kola. Unpublished manuscript p 85

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1192

Leung AY, Foster S 1996 Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients

used in food, drugs and cosmetics, 2nd edn. John Wiley,

New York, p 284–285

Lin YC, Yang TI, Chen JY, Yang CS 1972 Search for biologically

active substances in Taiwan medicinal plants. 1. Screening for

antitumor and antimicrobial substances. Zhonghua Minguo

Wei Sheng Wu Xue Za Zhi 5(1):76–81

Maquart FX, Chastang F, Simeon A et al 1999 Triterpenes from

Centella asiatica stimulate extracellular matrix accumulation in

rat experimental wounds. European Journal of Dermatology

9(4):289–296

Montecchio GP, Samaden A, Carbone S 1991 Centella asiatica

Triterpenic Fraction (CATTF) reduces the number of circulating

endothelial cells in subjects with post phlebitic syndrome.

Haematologica 76(3):256–259

Mook-Jung I, Shin JE, Yun SH 1999 Protective effects of asiaticoside

derivatives against beta-amyloid neurotoxicity. Journal of

Neuroscience Research 58(3):417–425

Newall C, Anderson L, Phillipson JD 1996 Herbal medicines: a guide

for professionals. The Pharmaceutical Press, London,

p 170–172

Oliver-Bever B 1986 Medicinal plants in tropical West Africa.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 67

Ramaswamy AS, Pariyaswamy SM, Basu N 1970. Pharmacological

studies on Centella asiatica Linn. Journal of Research in Indian

Medicine 4:160–175

Shukla A, Rasik AM, Jain GK et al 1999a In vitro and in vivo wound

healing activity of asiaticoside isolated from Centella asiatica.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 65(1):1–11.

Shukla A, Rasik AM, Dhawan BN 1999b Asiaticoside-induced elevation

of anti-oxidant levels in healing wounds. Phytotherapy

Research 13(1):50–54

Spencer TS 1985 Pseudofolliculitis barbae or razor bumps and

shaving. Cosmetics and Toiletries 100:47–49

Srikanthamurthy KR 1994 Va¯gbhat.

a’s As.t.

a¯ñga Hr. dayam, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 90

Srikanthamurthy KR 1995 Va¯gbhat.

a’s As.t.

a¯ñga Hr. dayam, vol 3.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 438

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 274

Suguna L, Sivakumar P, Chandrakasan G 1996 Effects of Centella

asiatica extract on dermal wound healing in rats. Indian

Journal of Experimental Biology 34(12):1208–1211

Man.d.

u¯kaparn.

ı¯, ‘frog-leaved’ 243

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 2. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 52, 54–55

Williamson EM (ed) 2002 Major herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill

Livingstone, London, p 103

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 122

244 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Botany: Mañjis.t.

ha¯ is a perennial herbaceous

climber, branches and stems quadangular, the mature

portions covered in a whitish bark that is rather rough

and grooved, the roots long and cylindrical, covered in

a reddish bark, medulla deep red in colour. The leaves

are variable, margins entire, 3–9 cm long by 1–4 cm

wide, arranged in whorls of three to eight (usually

four), the petioles of one pair often longer than the

other, cordate-ovate to ovate-lanceolate, with five to

seven veins that arise from the base. The small white or

greenish flowers are borne in terminal panicles or

cymes, giving rise to a purplish-black globose fruit containing

two small seeds. Mañjis.t.

ha¯ is found in hilly

areas, up to 3750 m in elevation, in tropical Africa and

Southeast Asia, north and eastwards into Tibet and

China (Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1996).

Part used: Root, stem.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: madhura, tikta, ka´sa¯ya

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, purı ¯s.asangrahan. ı ¯ya,

jvaraghna, kr . mighna, mu¯travirecana, a´smaribhedana,

raktaprasa¯dana, ´son. itastha¯pana, ´sothahara, kus.t.

aghna,

vis.aghna, sandha¯nı ¯ya, vedana¯stha¯pana, caks.us.ya,

balya, rasa¯yana, kaphapittahara (Dash 1991,

Frawley & Lad 1986, Srikanthamurthy 2001,

Warrier et al 1996).

Constituents: Mañjis.t.

ha¯ contains a variety of

quinones including the anthraquinones cordifoliol

and cordifodiol, the quinoidal dimers naphthohydroquinone

anhydride, furomollugin, mollugin, and rubilactone,

as well as naphthoic acid esters. Mañjis.t.

ha¯

has also been shown to contain the iridoid glycosides

6-methoxygeniposidic acid, manjishtin, garancin and

alazarin. Triterpenoids include oleananes rubiprasin

A–C and arboranes rubiarbonol A–F. Researchers

have also isolated bicyclic hexapeptides RA-VII and

RA-X to RA-XVI, as well as -sitosterol and daucosterol

(Abdullah et al 2003, Hassanean et al 2000,

Ho et al 1996, Hua et al 1992, Itokawa et al 1993,

Kapoor 1990, Morita et al 1992, Qiao et al 1990,

Takeya et al 1993, Wang et al 1992, Williamson

2002).

Medical research:

● In vitro: antioxidant (Pandey et al 1994, Tripathi

et al 1997, 1998), anti-HBsAg (Ho et al 1996),

antispasmodic (Gilani et al 1994), antithrombotic

(Tripathi et al 1993).

● In vivo: GABA-nergic, serotinergic, antiseizure

(Kasture et al 2000).

Toxicity: The oral LD50 is stated to be greater than

175 g/kg in mice (Bensky & Gamble 1993).

Indications: Dyspepsia, colic, diarrhoea, dysentery,

intestinal parasites, haemorrhoids, jaundice, hepatitis,

splenitis, intermittent fever, pharyngitis, cough,

oedema, skin diseases, wounds, ulcers, broken bones,

amenorrhea, dysmenorrhoea, metrorrhagia, haemorrhage,

urinary tenesmus, inflammatory joint disease,

neuralgia, pain, diabetes, cancer.

Contraindications: va¯takopa.

Medicinal uses: Mañjis.t.

ha¯ is revered as a potent

alterative or raktaprasa¯dana in A¯ yurvedic medicine,

acting on the liver and kidneys to mobilise toxins from

the tissues and blood for elimination. It is particularly

useful to break up congestion and stagnation in tissues

by enhancing circulation (hence it has an us.n.

a

vı¯rya), and thus finds utility in a range of conditions,

from tumours to chronic infection. The traditional

Mañjis.t.

ha¯

BOTANICAL NAME: Rubia cordifolia, Rubiaceae

OTHER NAMES: Manjit (H); Manjitti, Shevvelli (T); Indian Madder (E);

Qian cao gen (C)

Mañjis.t.

ha¯ 245

indication to use Mañjis.t.

ha¯ in blood disorders can be

inferred from its intensely red pigment, which resembles

the colour of blood. Thus Mañjis.t.

ha¯ can be used

whenever there is inflammation or bleeding, from

inflammatory skin conditions, such as acne, to dysfunctional

uterine bleeding. Manijishta is still used in

countries like India to dye cloth, and when applied topically

or taken internally, this dye can temporarily

colour the skin and urine red. Mañjis.t.

ha¯ is valued in

both urinary lithiasis and cholelithiasis, and stated to

be effective in both calcium phosphate and oxalate

stones of the bladder (Nadkarni 1954). Mañjis.t.

ha¯ is

similarly indicated in haematuria, with herbs such as

Goks.ura and Agnimañtha. Taken internally with

herbs such as Yastimadhu, Gud.u¯cı¯, Kat.uki and

Candana, Mañjis.t.

ha¯ may be effective in peptic ulcer

(amlapitta). In the treatment of consumptive conditions

with epistaxis Mañjis.t.

ha¯ may be effective when

used in combination with herbs such as Arjuna,

A¯

malakı¯, Va¯saka and Pus.karamu¯la. In the treatment

of rheumatoid arthritis, lupus and gout

Mañjis.t.

ha¯ is often applied topically as a medicated oil,

often in the form of preparation called Pin.d.

a taila,

composed of Mañjis.t.

ha¯, Sarjasa resin, Sa¯riva¯ and

beeswax, decocted in water and sesame oil. The

Cakradatta recommends a formula similarly useful

in the internal treatment of inflammatory joint disease,

comprising equal parts Mañjis.t.

ha¯, A¯malakı¯,

Harı¯takı¯, Bibhı¯taka, Nimba, Vaca¯, Kat.uka,

Gud.u¯cı¯ and Da¯ruharidra¯ in decoction or as a cu¯rn.

a

(Sharma 2002). In the treatment of vomiting of blood

or bleeding from the nose the Cakradatta recommends

a medicated ghr. ta prepared with Mañjis.t.

ha¯.

As its name might suggest, this herb is also indicated

in mañjis.t.

ha¯ prameha, a polyuria in which the urine

is bright red – for this purpose the Cakradatta

recommends a combination of Mañjis.t.

ha¯ and

Raktacandana (Sharma 2002). In the treatment of

wounds Mañjis.t.

ha¯ can be applied singly as a powder

or with equal parts herbs, such as Triphala,

Haridra¯, Nimba and Yas.t.imadhu. In the same fashion,

Mañjis.t.

ha¯ is also applied to ulcers and tumours

in combination with a variety of medicaments. To prevent

miscarriage the Cakradatta recommends a milk

decoction of Mañjis.t.

ha¯, ´Sata¯varı¯, Tila and As.mantaka,

taken for the first 7 months of pregnancy in susceptible

women (Sharma 2002). Prepared as a

medicated ghr. ta with Triphala, Mañjis.t.

ha¯ can be

used in conjunctivitis and glaucoma. In the patients

having undergone chemotherapy for lung and

oesophageal cancer presenting with haemoptysis,

Mañjis.t.

ha¯ can be combined with A´svagandha¯ and

Yas.t.

imadhu to promote healing. Chinese herbal

medicine corroborates many of the traditional

A¯

yurvedic uses for Mañjis.t.

ha¯, using it in the treatment

of bleeding disorders and in blood stasis, and in

pain from trauma or joint pain (Bensky & Gamble

1993).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 1:4, 30–120 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: dried root, 1:3, 50% alcohol, 1–5 mL

b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Taila: ad lib. in abhyan . ga etc. for inflammatory

joint disorders.

REFERENCES

Abdullah ST, Ali A, Hamid H et al 2003 Two new anthraquinones

from the roots of Rubia cordifolia Linn. Die Pharmazie

58(3):216–217

Bensky D, Gamble A 1993 Chinese herbal medicine materia medica,

revised edn. Eastland Press, Seattle, p 258

Dash B 1991 Materia medica of Ayurveda. B. Jain Publishers, New

Delhi, p 78

Frawley D, Lad V 1986 The yoga of herbs: an Ayurvedic guide to

herbal medicine. Lotus Press, Santa Fe, p 178

Gilani AH, Janbaz KH, Zaman M et al 1994 Possible presence of calcium

channel blocker(s) in Rubia cordifolia: an indigenous

medicinal plant. Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association

44(4):82–85

Hassanean HA, Ibraheim ZZ, Takeya K, Itorawa H 2000 Further

quinoidal derivatives from Rubia cordifolia L. Die Pharmazie

55(4):317–319

Ho LK, Don MJ, Chen HC et al 1996 Inhibition of hepatitis B surface

antigen secretion on human hepatoma cells. Components from

Rubia cordifolia. Journal of Natural Products 59(3):330–333

Hua HM, Wang SX, Wu LJ et al 1992 Studies on naphthoic acid

esters from the roots of Rubia cordifolia L. Yao Xue Xue Bao

27(4):279–282

Itokawa H, Ibraheim ZZ, Qiao YF, Takeya K 1993 Anthraquinones,

naphthohydroquinones and naphthohydroquinone dimers

from Rubia cordifolia and their cytotoxic activity. Chemical and

Pharmaceutical Bulletin (Tokyo) 41(10):1869–1872

Kapoor LD 1990 CRC handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants.

CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 292

Kasture VS, Deshmukh VK, Chopde CT 2000 Anticonvulsant and

behavioral actions of triterpene isolated from Rubia cordifolia

Linn. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 38(7):675–680

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 1303–1304

Morita H, Yamamiya T, Takeya K, Itokawa H 1992 New antitumor

bicyclic hexapeptides, RA-XI, -XII, -XIII and -XIV from Rubia

cordifolia. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin (Tokyo)

40(5):1352–1354

246 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by A.K.

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 1076

Pandey S, Sharma M, Chaturvedi P, Tripathi YB 1994 Protective

effect of Rubia cordifolia on lipid peroxide formation in isolated

rat liver homogenate. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology

32(3):180–183

Qiao YF, Wang SX, Wu LJ 1990 Studies on antibacterial constituents

from the roots of Rubia cordifolia L. Yao Xue Xue Bao

25(11):834–839

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta: Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 236, 326, 585

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 190

Takeya K, Yamamiya T, Morita H, Itokawa H 1993 Two antitumor

bicyclic hexapeptides from Rubia cordifolia. Phytochemistry

33(3):613–615

Tripathi YB, Sharma M 1998 Comparison of the anti-oxidant

action of the alcoholic extract of Rubia cordifolia with

rubiadin. Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics

35(5):313–316

Tripathi YB, Pandey S, Shukla SD 1993 Antiplatelet activating factor

property of Rubia cordifolia Linn. Indian Journal of

Experimental Biology 31(6):533–535

Tripathi YB, Sharma M, Manickam M 1997 Rubiadin, a new antioxidant

from Rubia cordifolia. Indian Journal of Biochemistry

and Biophysics 34(3):302–306

Wang SX, Hua HM, Wu LJ 1992 Studies on anthraquinones from

the roots of rubia cordifolia. Yao Xue Xue Bao

27(10):743–747

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1996 Indian medicinal

plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 5. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 17

Williamson EM (ed) 2002 Major herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill

Livingstone, London, p 258

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore

Mustaka 247

Botany: Mustaka is a perennial, herbaceous sedge

attaining a height of up to 75 cm, with elongated,

slender stolons interspersed by aromatic tubers, 1–3

cm in length, the cortex black, the medulla reddishwhite.

The leaves are shorter than the stem, glabrous,

linear, dark green, finely acuminate, flat, with a single

vein. The flowers are borne in spikes arranged as simple

or compound umbels, each spike in turn composed

of several spikelets containing small flowers with

a reddish-brown husk. The fruit is an obovoid, greyishbrown,

three-angled nut that is black when mature.

Mustaka is stated to be native to India, but is now

found all over the world and is considered by many to

be an invasive weed of wet, marshy places (Kirtikar &

Basu 1935, Warrier et al 1994).

Part used: Tuber.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: tikta, ka´sa¯ya

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: ´sita

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, purı ¯s.asangrahan. ı ¯ya,

jvaraghna, chedana, kr . mighna, mu¯travirecana,

a´smaribhedana, kus.t.

aghna, ´son. itastha¯pana,

sandha¯nı ¯ya, a¯rtavajanana, stanyajanana,

vedana¯stha¯pana, medhya, kaphapittahara

(Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1994).

Constituents: Mustaka contains an essential oil that

provides for the characteristic odour and taste of the

herb, mostly consisting of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons,

epoxides, ketones, monoterpenes and aliphatic

alcohols. Sesquiterpenes include -selinene, isocurcumenol,

nootkatone, aristolone, isorotundene,

cypera-2,4(15)-diene, and norrotundene, as well as

the sesquiterpene alkaloid rotundines A–C. Other

constituents include the ketone cyperadione, and the

monoterpenes cineole, camphene and limonene.

Mustaka has also been shown to contain miscellaneous

triterpenes including oleanolic acid and -sitosterol,

as well as flavonoids, sugars and minerals

(Ha et al 2002, Jeong et al 2000, Kapoor 1990, Sonwa

& Konig 2001, Williamson 2002).

Medical research:

● In vitro: antitoxic (Daswani et al 2001), antimalarial

(Weenen et al 1990), GABA nergic

(Ha et al 2002), antioxidant (Seo et al 2001).

● In vivo: antitoxic (Daswani et al 2001).

● Human trials: obese patients given an extract of

Mustaka over a 90-day period were found to have

experienced a reduction in weight, as well as a similar

reduction in serum triglycerides and cholesterol

(Williamson 2002).

Toxicity: The LD50 of an ethanolic extract was determined

to be 1500 mg/kg (Williamson 2002).

Indications: Nausea and vomiting, dyspepsia, colic,

flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery, intestinal parasites,

fever, malaria, cough, bronchitis, renal and vesical

calculi, urinary tenesmus, skin diseases, wounds,

amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, deficient lactation.

Contraindications: va¯takopa, constipation.

Medicinal uses: Mustaka is an important medicinal

plant in A¯ yurvedic medicine, a bitter tasting aromatic

herb that acts to enkindle agni, dispel a¯ma, and

relieve intestinal spasm. Overall, Mustaka helps to

normalise excessive secretion, and in this way tends to

have a constipating activity that makes it particularly

effective in diarrhoea. While it is used in formulation

to treat dysentery, it is particularly useful after initial

treatment, used over the medium term to restore

digestive health and combat any lingering infection. It

Mustaka

BOTANICAL NAME: Cyperus rotundus, Cyperaceae

OTHER NAMES: Motha (H); Korai (T); Nut Grass (E); Xiang fu (C)

248 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

is also used in non-infective digestive disorders, however,

marked by intestinal spasm, bloating, and a tendency

to loose motions. The Cakradatta recommends

a variety of formulations containing Mustaka in the

treatment of diarrhoea, depending on the severity and

associated symptoms. For severe diarrhoea Mustaka

is combined with herbs such as Kut.aja, Bilva,

Da¯d.ima, and Dha¯taki, along with antimicrobial

botanicals such as Kat.uka, Gud.u¯cı¯ and

Da¯ruharidra¯, and antispasmodic herbs such as Vaca¯

and Ela¯. For diarrhoea with symptoms of burning

sensation and thirst, Mustaka is combined with cooling

botanicals such as Candana, Dha¯nyaka and

Bala¯ka. In diarrhoea with symptoms of a¯ma, in

which the bowel movements have a foul odour and are

accompanied by severe colic, Mustaka is combined

with botanicals such as Harı¯takı¯, ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, Hin.gu and

Pippalı¯. In the treatment of intestinal parasites the

Cakradatta recommends Musta¯di kva¯tha, which

consists of a decoction of Mustaka, Mu¯s.a¯karn.

i,

Triphala, ´Sigru and Devada¯ru, with the pastes of

Pippalı¯ and Vid.

an.ga (Sharma 2002). In the treatment

of cough, bronchitis and asthma Mustaka can

be combined with botanicals such as Va¯saka,

Haridra¯, Bibhı¯taka, Pippalı¯, Kan.

t.

aka¯ri, and

Pus.karamu¯la. In the treatment of inflammatory

joint disease (a¯mava¯ta) Mustaka is used as an

adjunct to herbs such as Guggulu, Gud.u¯cı¯, Citraka,

´Su¯n.t.

hı¯ and Triphala, to relieve pain and enkindle

agni. In the treatment of diabetes Mustaka is used in

conjunction with herbs such as Triphala, Devada¯ru,

Gud.u¯cı¯, Guggulu, Haridra¯ and ´Sila¯jatu. The antispasmodic

properties of the root also make it helpful in

gynaecological disorders such as premenstrual tension,

dysmenorrhoea, endometritis, all more or less

attended by loose motions or diarrhoea. Mustaka is

also taken internally and applied topically as a fresh

plant poultice as a galactagogue.

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: 1:4, 30–90 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Tincture: dried root, 1:3, 50% alcohol, 1–5 mL

b.i.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Daswani PG, Birdi TJ, Antia NH 2001 Study of the action of

Cyperus rotundus root decoction on the adherence and enterotoxin

production of diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli. Indian

Journal of Pharmacology 33:116–117

Ha JH, Lee KY, Choi HC et al 2002 Modulation of radioligand binding

to the GABA(A)-benzodiazepine receptor complex by a new

component from Cyperus rotundus. Biological and

Pharmaceutical Bulletin 25(1):128–130

Jeong SJ, Miyamoto T, Inagaki M et al 2000 Rotundines A–C, three

novel sesquiterpene alkaloids from Cyperus rotundus. Journal

of Natural Products 63(5):673–675

Kapoor LD 1990 CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants.

CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 292

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 2638–2639

Seo WG, Pae HO, Oh GS et al 2001 Inhibitory effects of methanol

extract of Cyperus rotundus rhizomes on nitric oxide and

superoxide productions by murine macrophage cell line,

RAW 264.7 cells. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

76(1):59–64

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta: Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 110

Sonwa MM, Konig WA 2001 Chemical study of the essential oil of

Cyperus rotundus. Phytochemistry 58(5):799–810

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 220

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1994 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 2. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 296–299

Weenen H, Nkunya MH, Bray DH et al 1990 Antimalarial activity

of Tanzanian medicinal plants. Planta Medica 56(4):368–370

Williamson EM (ed) 2002 Major herbs of Ayurveda. Churchill

Livingstone, London, p 122–124

Na¯gake´sara, ‘serpent stamens’ 249

Na¯gake´sara, ‘serpent stamens’

BOTANICAL NAMES: Mesua ferrea, M. nagassarium, Clusiaceae

OTHER NAMES: Nagapus.pa, ‘serpent flowers’ (S); Nagkesar (H); Nagappu,

Nanku (T); Ironwood (E)

Botany: Na¯gake´sara is a medium to large sized tree

that can attain a height of between 18 and 30 m, with

reddish-brown to greyish coloured bark that peels off

in thin flakes, the wood extremely hard. The leaves are

simple, lanceolate, acute, leathery, covered in a waxy

bloom below, red when young, oppositely arranged,

7–13 cm long by 2–4 cm wide. The flowers are white

with a floral fragrance, up to 7.5 cm in diameter, with

numerous golden-colored stamens shorter than the

length of the petals, the style twice as long as the

stamens, borne singly or in pairs, axillary or terminal.

The fruits are ovoid with a conical point, 2.5–5 cm

long, with a woody pericarp that contains one to

four seeds. Na¯gake´sara is found throughout

Southeast Asia in tropical evergreen forests up to

1500 m in elevation (Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Warrier

et al 1995).

Part used: Flowers.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: ka´sa¯ya, tikta

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a, ru¯ks.

a

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, purı ¯s.asangrahan. ı ¯ya,

jvaraghna, chedana, mu¯travirecana, mu¯travi´sodhana,

´son. itastha¯pana, hr . daya, vis.aghna, vedana¯stha¯pana,

vajı ¯karan. a, tridos.aghna (Srikanthamurthy 2001,

Warrier et al 1995).

Constituents: The flowers of Mesua ferrea contain a

yellow-coloured highly fragrant essential oil, the

stamens specifically containing mesuanic acid,

-amyrin, -amyrin, -sitosterol, and the biflavonoids

mesuaferrone A and B. Researchers have also isolated

a group of xanthones from M. ferrea, including

euxanthone, dehydrocycloguanadin, jacareubin, and

mesuaxanthones A and B. The seed contains the

coumarin mesaugin, the lactones mesuol, mesuone,

and mammeisin, as well as a fixed oil comprising oleic,

stearic, palmatic and linoleic acids (Gopalkrishnan et al

1980, Kapoor 1990, Yoganarasimhan 2000).

Medical research:

● In vitro: antibacterial (Kapoor 1990).

● In vivo: CNS depressant (Gopalkrishnan et al

1980), anti-inflammatory (Gopalkrishnan et al

1980), anti-asthmatic (Kapoor 1990).

Toxicity: There have been some reports of aflatoxins

in the seed oil, probably from poor storage conditions

(Roy & Chourasia 1989).

Indications: Vomiting, halitosis, ulcer, dysentery,

bleeding haemorrhoids, fever, cough, pharyngitis,

asthma, haemoptysis, skin diseases, buring sensations,

cystitis, cardiac debility, headache, leucorrhoea,

impotency.

Contraindications: No data found.

Medicinal uses: Na¯gake´sara is valued as a pleasantly

fragrant herb that can help to improve the odour

of formulations, with an astringent, pa¯cana property

that acts to clear away congestion and a¯ma. Although

classified as mildly warming Na¯gake´sara is an important

herb to use for pittakopa conditions such as

dysentery and burning sensations. Va¯ttika conditions

are also stated to be pacified by it (Warrier et al 1995),

probably by virtue of its dı¯panapa¯cana property

as well as due to the pleasing, uplifting fragrance of

the essential oil. The As.t.

a¯ñga Hr.

daya includes

Na¯gake´sara in a list of medicinal plants that are used

to counter the effects of poison, treat skin rashes and

itching, and reduce all three dos.as (Srikanthamurthy

1994). In the treatment of haemorrhoids Na¯gake´sara

is used in a variety of formulations depending on the

250 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

causative factor. For haemorrhoids associated with

kapha, four parts Na¯gake´sara can be mixed with

seven parts ´Su¯n.t.

hı¯, six parts Pippalı¯, five parts

Marica, three parts Patra leaf, two parts Tvak bark

and one part Ela¯ (Sharma 2002). For bleeding haemorrhoids

Na¯gake´sara can be prepared as a medicated

ghr. ta mixed with equal parts Kut.aja, Nı¯lotpala,

Lodhra, and Dha¯taki, taken in doses of 3–12 g

(Sharma 2002). For a more simplified approach, the

cu¯rn.

a of Na¯gake´sara is mixed with butter and sugar

and taken internally in the treatment of haemorrhoids

and dysentery (Sharma 2002). Nadkarni states

that this preparation is similarly useful in thirst,

gastric irritation, excessive perspiration, and cough

(1954). Prepared as a medicated ghr. ta Na¯gake´sara

can also be applied topically in haemorrhoids, and can

be similarly applied in the treatment of burning and

tingling sensations of the feet (Nadkarni 1954,

Sharma 2002). In the treatment of skin diseases and

obesity a cu¯rn.

a of Na¯gake´sara can be mixed with

equal parts ´Siris.a, La¯majjaka, and Lodhra, applied

in udavartana abhyan.ga (Sharma 2002).

Na¯gake´sara is stated to be useful in symptoms of

gonorrhoea and renal diseases, and can be used as a

substitute for Cavya in the treatment of diseases of

the urinary tract (Kapoor 1990, Nadkarni 1954).

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: 3–5 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Hima: 30–90 mL bi.d.–t.i.d.

REFERENCES

Gopalkrishnan C, Shankaranarayanan D, Nazimudeen SK et al

1980 Anti-inflammatory and CNS depressant activities of xanthones

from Calophyllum inophyllum and Mesua ferrea. Indian

Journal of Pharmacology 12(3):181–191

Kapoor LD 1990 CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants.

CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 228–229

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD 1935 Indian medicinal plants, 2nd edn, vols

1–4. Periodical Experts, Delhi, p 274–5

Nadkarni KM 1954 The Indian materia medica, with Ayurvedic,

Unani and home remedies, revised and enlarged by A.K.

Nadkarni. Popular Prakashan PVP, Bombay, p 794–795

Roy AK, Chourasia HK 1989 Aflatoxin problems in some medicinal

plants under storage. International Journal of Crude Drug

Research 27(3):156–160

Sharma PV 2002 Cakradatta: Sanskrit text with English translation.

Chaukhamba, Varanasi, p 83, 89, 90, 204, 338

Srikanthamurthy KR 1994 Va¯gbhat.

a’s As.t.a¯ñga Hr. dayam, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 202, 207

Srikanthamurthy KR 2001 Bha¯vapraka¯´sa of Bha¯vami´sra, vol 1.

Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, p 217

Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Ramankutty C (eds) 1995 Indian

medicinal plants: a compendium of 500 species, vol 4. Orient

Longman, Hyderabad, p 27–30

Yoganarasimhan SN 2000 Medicinal plants of India, vol 2: Tamil

Nadu. Self-published, Bangalore, p 353

Nimba, ‘bestower of health’ 251

Botany: Nimba is a medium to large evergreen tree,

attaining a height of between 15 and 20 m, with a

straight trunk, widely spreading branches, and greyish

tubercled bark. The leaves are alternate and imparipinately

compound, with 7–17 leaflets arranged in

pairs, often with a terminal leaflet, ovate to lanceolate,

sickle-shaped with an uneven base and serrate margins,

6–8 cm long, 1–3 cm wide. The flowers are

cream to yellow in colour, borne in axillary panicles,

giving rise to a single seeded ellipsoid drupe that is

greenish-yellow when ripe. Nimba is widely cultivated

in tropical and subtropical regions all over the

world, and is thought to be native to the subcontinent

(Kirtikar & Basu 1935).

Part used: Bark, leaves (Nimbapatra), seeds

(Nimbaphala).

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: ka´sa¯ya, tikta

● Vipa¯ka: kat.u

● Vı¯rya: ´sita

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, vamana, purı ¯s.asangrahan. ı ¯ya,

kr . mighna, jvaraghna, chedana, da¯hapra´samana,

raktaprasa¯dana, kus.t.

haghna, mu¯travirecana,

mu¯travi´sodhana, sandha¯nı ¯ya, vis.aghna,

pittakaphahara (Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier

et al 1994).

Constituents: Nimba is a fairly well researched medicinal

plant, and as a result a number of constituents have

been isolated from it. Among these are bitter-tasting terpenes

called limonoids, including azadirachtin, nimbanal,

nimbidiol, margocin, margocinin and related

compounds, as well as a variety of other terpenoids

including isoazadirolide, nimbocinolide, gedunin, margosinone

and nimbonone. More recently, researchers

have isolated a series of tetranortriterpenoids including

azadirachtol, 1, 2-epoxy-17−hydroxyazadiradione,

1, 2-epoxynimolicinol, and 7-deacetylnimolicinol.

Other constituents include the flavonoids kaempferol,

quercetin, quercitrin, rutin, and myricetin, as well as -

sitosterol, a tannin, a gum, and a series of polysaccharides

named CSP-II and -III, CSSP-I, -II, and -III, etc.

(Duke 2003, Hallur et al 2002, Kapoor 1990, Luo et al

2000, Malathi et al 2002, Williamson 2002).

Medical research:

● In vitro: negatively ionotropic/chronotropic

(Kholsa et al 2002), hypotensive (Chattopadhyay

1997), antiviral (Badam et al 1999; Parida et al

2002), antifungal (Fabry et al 1996), antibacterial

(Almas 1999, Alzoreky & Nakahara 2003).

● In vivo: hepatoprotective (Arivazhagan et al

2000; Bhanwra et al 2000), anti-ulcerogenic

(Bandyopadhyay et al 2002), hypoglycaemic

(Kholsa et al 2000), hypotensive (Koley & Lal

1994), immunostimulant (Mukherjee et al 1999,

Njiro & Kofi-Tsekpo 1999, Upadhyay et al 1992),

anti-inflammatory (Chattopadhyay et al 1998),

antitumour (Kumar et al 2002; Tepsuwan et al

2002), anxiolytic (Jaiswal et al 1994), antifertility

(Kasturi et al 2002, Mukherjee et al 1999,

Parshad et al 1994), antiviral (Parida et al 2002).

● Human trials: a lyophilised powder of Nimba

extract administered over 10 days, 30–60 mg twice

daily, caused a significant decrease in gastric acid

secretion and pepsin activity, and when taken for

between 6 and 10 weeks almost completely healed

lesions in patients suffering from duodenal, gastric

and oesophageal ulcers (Bandyopadhyay et al

2004). An extract of Nimba was found to lower

total serum cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels

in non-malarial patients, while increasing triacylglycerol

and HDL-cholesterol in malarial patients

(Njoku et al 2001). A Nimba mouth rinse was

found to be active against Streptococcus mutans

Nimba, ‘bestower of health’

BOTANICAL NAMES: Azadirachta indica, Melia azadirachta, Meliaceae

OTHER NAMES: Nim, Nimb (H); Vempu, Veppu (T); Neem, Margosa (E)

252 PART 2: A¯ yurvedic materia medica

and reversed incipient carious lesions (Vanka et al

2001); a dental gel containing Nimba leaf extract

(25 mg/g) was found to significantly reduce the

plaque index and bacterial count compared to

chlorhexidine gluconate (0.2% w/v) mouthwash

(Pai et al 2004). A paste prepared from Nimba and

Haridra¯ was found to promote a 97% cure rate in

scabies within 3 to 15 days of treatment, with

no toxic or adverse reactions (Charles & Charles

1992); a 2% Nimba oil mixed in coconut oil

applied to the exposed body parts of human volunteers

provided complete protection from mosquito

bites over a 12-hour period (Sharma et al 1993).

Toxicity: A cumulative oral dose of the crude bark

extract of Nimba, of 1–9 g/kg in mice over a 15-day

period, was well tolerated and below the LD50

(Bandyopadhyay et al 2002). The seed oil of Nimba

was determined to have a 24-hour oral LD50 of 14

ml/kg in rats and 24 ml/kg in rabbits. The lungs and

central nervous system appeared to be the target

organs of toxicity. In comparison, a mustard seed oil

was determined to have an oral LD50 of 80 ml/kg

(Gandhi et al 1988). Chewing sticks made from

Azadirachta indica were observed to be susceptible

to post-harvest spoilage and are not advisable for oral

hygiene measures if not fresh (Etebu et al 2003).

Indications: Dyspepsia, ulcers, intestinal parasites,

haemorrhoids, liver diseases, fever, malarial fever,

cough, bronchitis, asthma, tuberculosis, skin diseases,

inflammatory joint disease, cystitis, amenorrhoea,

diabetes, tumours, conjunctivitis and ophthalmic disorders

generally.

Contraindications: va¯takopa.

Medicinal uses: The name Nimba is an ancient

name, derived from the Sanskrit phrase ‘nimbati

sva¯sthyamdadati’, meaning ‘bestower of good

health’. Nimba is a sacred tree in India, associated

with Laks.mı¯, the goddess of abundance and good fortune,

and Surya, the sun. It has a bitter taste and

a cooling energy, acting to remove congestion and

reduce inflammation, and is thus reserved for afflictions

of pitta and kapha. Although one study

indicates an anxiolytic effect, the Bha¯vapraka¯´sa

states specifically that it is ‘bad for the heart’, and

‘unpleasant for the mind’ (Srikanthamurthy 2001).

Nimba is an important herb in fever, used in simple

formulations such as a soup prepared with Pat.

ola

(Sharma 2002). It is also used in more complex formulations

such as Nimba¯di kva¯tha, used in the treatment

of masu¯rika¯, or chicken pox, composed of

equal parts Nimba, Harı¯takı¯, Kat.uka, Va¯saka,

U´sı¯ra, A¯ malakı¯, Candana, Parpat.a, Dura¯labha¯,

Pat.

ola, and Raktacandana (Sharma 2002). In the

treatment of jaundice the Cakradatta recommends a

buffalo milk decoction of Nimba, Haridra¯, Pippalı¯,

Bala¯ and Yas.t.

imadhu (Sharma 2002). In the treatment

of acid reflux and vomiting associated with gastritis,

as well as colic and fever, the Cakradatta

recommends a decoction of Nimba, Gud.u¯cı¯,

Triphala and Pat.

ola, taken cool with honey (Sharma

2002). In the treatment of unma¯da (‘psychosis’)

Nimba leaves are reduced to a powder with Vaca¯,

Hin.gu, Sars.

apa seed and the discarded skin of a

snake, and burned as an incense (Sharma 2002). In

the treatment of gout and eczema Nimba is mixed

with equal parts Triphala, Mañjis.t.

ha¯, Vaca¯,

Kat.uka, Gud.u¯cı¯ and Da¯ruharidra¯, taken as a cu¯rn.

a

or kva¯tha (Sharma 2002). In combination with

Punarnava¯, Kat.uka, Gud.u¯cı¯, Devada¯ru, Harı¯takı¯,

Pat.

ola, and ´Su¯n.t.hı¯, Nimba is stated to be an effective

treatment for intestinal parasites associated with

anaemia and dyspnoea (Sharma 2002). Mixed with

Haridra¯, Nimba has been shown to be an effective

remedy in the treatment of scabies, and similar formulations

can be used in udavartana abhyan.ga in

the treatment of obesity and oedema. Nimba is also

used in premature ageing and greyness associated

with anger and physical strain, used as a simple medicated

taila in nasya therapy for a period of 1 month

(Sharma 2002). Nimba flowers are traditionally used

in Tamil cookery, stir-fried with pepper, mustard seed,

and Hin.gu in ghee, after which water, tamarind

paste, curry leaves and salt are added as the base of a

spicy, flavourable dı¯panapa¯cana soup. Nimba has

recently undergone much investigation for its insecticidal

properties against disease-carrying insects such

as mosquitoes and common agricultural pests such as

flies, beetles, worms, cockroaches and moths, but

appears to cause little harm to beneficial insects such

as wasps, butterflies, bees, spiders and earthworms

(Vietmeyer 1992). Organic farmers can thus take

advantage of Nimba’s insecticidal properties to good

advantage, and people can apply the diluted oil (2%) to

ward off mosquitos, without fear of harm. Some studNimba,

‘bestower of health’ 253

ies suggest that Nimba may act as a contraceptive, but

this application is still in the experimental stage.

Dosage:

● Cu¯rn.

a: bark, leaf, 1–2 g b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Svarasa: leaf, 6–12 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Hima: leaf, 30–90 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Kva¯tha: bark, 30–60 mL b.i.d.–t.i.d.

● Seed oil: topically only, 2–50% v/v in a carrier oil.

REFERENCES

Almas K 1999 The antimicrobial effects of extracts of Azadirachta

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Nirgun.d.

ı¯ 255

Botany: Nirgun.d.

ı¯ is a large shrub or small tree with

thin grey bark, quadangular branchlets covered with

a fine white hair, which attains a height of about 3 m.

The leaves are oppositely arranged, with three to five

leaflets, the leaflets lanceolate, acute, glabrous above

with a white, fine hair below, the terminal leaflet

longer than the others on a long petiole, 5–10 cm in

length by 1.6–3.2 cm wide, the lateral leaflets on very

short petioles. The bluish purple flowers are borne in

axillary or terminal panicles up to 30 cm long, giving

rise to black globose drupes with four seeds when ripe.

Nirgun.d.

ı¯ is the name given to specimens with

a bluish purple flower; Sinduvara is the name for the

identical plant with a white flower. Nirgun.d.

ı¯ is found

throughout India, in waste areas and along water

courses, extending westwards into Iran and Eastern

Africa, and eastwards into Malaysia and China

(Kirtikar & Basu 1935, Srikanthamurthy 2001,

Warrier et al 1996).

Part used: Whole plant.

Dravygun. a:

● Rasa: ka´sa¯ya, tikta, kat.u

● Vipa¯ka: laghu

● Vı¯rya: us.n.

a

● Karma: dı ¯panapa¯cana, kr . mighna, jvaraghna,

chedana, mu¯travirecana, raktaprasa¯dana,

a¯rtavajanana, sandha¯nı ¯ya, vedana¯stha¯pana, caks.us.ya,

romasañjanana, vis.aghna, medhya, rasa¯yana,

va¯takaphahara (leaf), pittahara (flower)

(Srikanthamurthy 2001, Warrier et al 1996).

Constituents: A variety of constituents have been

isolated from the different plants of Nirgun.d.

ı¯, including

an essential oil, flavonoids and triterpenes. The leaf

is reported to contain an essential oil comprising

monoterpenes terpinen-4-ol, p-cymene, -terpineol

and sabinene, and sesquiterpenes -caryophyllene,

globulol, spathulenol, -farnesene and bis[1,

1-dimethyl]methylphenol. Other constituents include

the alkaloids nishidine and hydrocotylene, the

flavonoids casticin, chrysophenol-D, luteolin and

isoorientin, the triterpenoids betulinic acid, ursolic

acid, 3-acetoxyolean-12-en-27-oic acid, 2,3-

dihydroxyoleana-5,12-dien-28-oic acid, 2,-diacetoxyoleana-

5,12-dien-28-oic acid, and 2, 3-

diacetoxy-18-hydroxyoleana-5,12-dien-28-oic acid,

-sitosterol, the aliphatic alcohol n-hentriacontanol,

and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (Chandramu et al 2003,

Chawla et al 1992, Shafi et al 1998, Yoganarasimhan

2000).

Medical research:

● In vitro: antibacterial (Perumal et al 1998),

antivenom (Alam & Gomes 2003).

● In vivo: CNS-depressant, analgesic, anticonvulsant

(Gupta et al 1999); hepatoprotective (Avadhoot

& Rana 1991); anti-inflammatory (Jana et al

1999); anti-allergenic (Nair & Saraf 1995); insect

repellent (Hebbalkar et al 1992); antivenom (Alam

& Gomes 2003); antifertility (Bhargava et al 1989).

 

Om Tat Sat

                                                        

(Continued...) 

(My humble salutations to   Sreeman Todd Caldecott, Elsevier’s Health Sciences and others other eminent medical scholars and doctors   for the collection)