Scientific Basis for
Ayurvedic Therapies
edited by
Brahmasree Lakshmi Chandra Mishra
References
1. Ziauddin, M. and Phansalkar, N., Studies on the
immunomodulatory effects of ashwangandha,
J. Ethnopharmacol., 50, 69, 1996.
2. Santos, L.B., Yaranda, F.T., and Scheinberg, M.A.,
Monocyte and lymphocyte interaction in
patients with advanced cancer, evidence for deficient
il-1 production, Cancer, 56, 1553, 1983.
3. Grzelak, I., Olszewski, W.S., and Engesser, A.,
Influence of operative trauma on circulating
blood mononuclear cells analysis using mononuclear
antibodies, Eur. Surg. Res., 16, 15, 1987.
4. Whittaker, J.A., Hughes, A.R., and Khurshid, M., The
effect of cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory
drugs on the phagocytosis of neutrophils leucocytes, Br. J. Haematol.,
29, 273, 1975.
5. Mayer, K.H. and De Torres, O.H., Current guidelines on
the use of antibacterial drugs in
patients with malignancies, Drugs, 29,
262, 1985.
6. Hadden, J.W., Immunomodulators in the immunotherapy of
cancer and other diseases, Trends
Pharmacol. Sci.,
3, 191, 1982.
7. Drews, J., Immunomodulation in Recent Advances in Infections 2, Reeves, D.S., Ed., Churchill
Livingstone, New York, 1982, p. 89.
8. Hiu, I.J., Water-soluble and lipid free fraction from
BCG with adjuvant with anti-tumour
activity, Nature
New Biol., 238, 241, 1972.
9. Parant, M., Muramyl peptides as enhancers of host
resistance to bacterial infections, in Progress
in Leucocyte Biology, Majde, J.A. and Alan, R., Eds., Alan R. Liss, New York, 1987, p. 235.
10. Dinarello, C.A., Interleukin-1, Rev. Infect. Dis., 51, 1984.
11. Moore, R.N., Hoffield, J.T., Farrar, J.J., and
Mergenhagen, S.E., Role of CSF as primary regulators
of macrophage functions, Lymphokines,
3, 119, 1981.
12. Thatte, U.M. and Dahanukar, S.A., Ayurveda and
contemporary scientific thought, Trends
Pharmacol. Sci.,
7, 247, 1986.
13. Kuby, J., Ed., Overview of Immune System in Immunology, W.H. Freeman, New York, 1997, p. 12.
14. Powrie, F. and Coffman, R.L., Cytoregulation of
T-cell function: potential for therapeutic
intervention, Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 14, 164,
1993.
15. Coffman, R.L. and Carty, J.A., T cell activity that
enhances polyclonal IgE production and its
inhibition by interferon-g, J. Immunol., 136, 949, 1986.
16. Sanderson, C.J., O’Garra, A.O., Warren, D.J., and
Klans, G.G., Eosinophil differentiation factor
also has B cell growth factor: proposed name
interleukin-4, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 83, 437, 1986.
17. Murray, H.W., Spitalyny, G.L., and Nathan, C.F.,
Activation of mouse peritoneal macrophage
in vitro and in vivo by
interferon-g,
J. Immunol., 134, 1619, 1985.
18. Wyllie, A.H., Apoptosis (the 1992 Frank Rose Memorial
Lecture), Br. J. Cancer, 67, 205, 1983.
19. Mungantiwar, A.A., Studies on Immunomodulatory
Activity of Boerhaavia diffusa, Ph.D. thesis,
Bombay University, Bombay, India,
1998.
20. Rege, N.N., Clinical Prospects of Tinospora Cordifolia: An Immunomodulator Plant in
Immunopharmacology
Strategies for Immunotherapy, Upadhyay, S.N., Ed., Narosa Publishing House, Delhi,
India, 1999, p. 105.
21. Ranade, S. and Paranjpe, G.R., Kayachiktsa (Marathi), 3rd
ed., Vol. 2, Anmol Publication, Pune,
India, 1987, p. 168.
22. Charakacharya, Charak Samhita,
Commentary by Sashtri, K. and Goraknath, C., 13th ed., Vol.
2, Chaukambha Bharti Academy, Varanasi, India,
1986, p. 5.
23. Sushrutacharya, Sushrut Samhita (Sanskrit),
Trikamji, J. and Acharya, N.A., Eds., Nirnayansagar
Press, Mumbai,
India, 1945, p.
2.
24. Thatte, U. and Dahanukar, S., Rasayana concept: clues
from immunomodulatory therapy, in
Imuunomodulation,
Upadhyay, S.N., Ed., Narosa Publishing House, Delhi, India,
1995, p. 145.
25. Ranade, S. and Paranjpe, G.R., Kayachiktsa (Marathi), 3rd
ed., Vol. 2, Anmol Publication, Pune,
India, 1987, p. 168.
26. Suguna, L. et al., Influence of Terminalia chebula on dermal wound healing in rats, Phytother.
Res., 16(3),
227, 2002.
27. Shiraki, K., Yukawa, T., Kurokawa, M., and Kageyama,
S., Cytomeagolvirus and its possible
treatment with herbal medicines, Nippon Rinsho,
56(1), 56, 1998.
28. Me Kakkawy, S. et al., Inhibitory effects of Egytian
folk medicines on human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) reverse transcriptase, Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo),
43(4), 641, 1995.
29. Ahmad, I., Mehmood, Z., and Mohammad, F., Screening
of some Indian medicinal plants for
their anti-microbial properties, J. Ethnopharmacol., 62, 183, 1998.
30. Bhattacharya, A. and Chatterjee, A., Antioxidant
activity of active tannoi principles of Emblica
officinalis, Indian J. Exp. Biol., 37,
676, 1999.
31. Katiyar, C.K. et al., Immunomodulator products from
Ayurveda: current status and future
perspectives, in Immunomodulation, Upadhaya,
S.N., Ed., Narosa Publishing House, New
Delhi, India, 1995, p. 163.
32. Agarwal, A.K., Singh, M., and Gupta, N., Management
of giardiasis by an immunomodulatory
herbal drug Pippali Rasayan, J. Ethnopharmacol., 44, 143, 1994.
33. Badam, L., In vitro studies on the effect of
glycyrrhizin from Indian Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.
on some RNA and DNA viruses, Indian J. Pharmacol., 39, 211, 1994.
34. Nose, M., Activation of macrophages by crude
fractions obtained from shoots of glycyrrhiza
glabra, Free
Radical Biol. Med., 23, 302,
1997.
35. Ali, M., Thomson, M., and Afzal, M., Garlic and
opions: their effect on eicosonoid metabolism
and its clinical relevance, Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 62, 55, 2000.
36. Singh, A. and Shukla, Y., Antitumour activity of
diallyl sulfide in two mouse skin models of
carcinogenesis, Biomed. Environ. Sci., 11,
258, 1998.
37. Vijayalakshmi, T. and Muthulakshmi, V., Effect of the
milk extract of Semecarpus anacardium
nut on adjuvant arthritis-dose dependent study in Wistar
albino rats, Gen. Pharmacol., 27(7),
1223, 1996.
38. Smit, H.F. et al., Ayurvedic herbal drugs with
possible cytotoxic activity, J.
Ethnopharmacol.,
47(2), 75, 1995.
39. Singh, R.B. and Gjosh, S., Hypolipidemic and
anti-oxidants effects of Commiphora
mukul as an
adjuvant to dietary in patients with
hypercholesterolemia, Cardiovasc.
Drugs Ther., 8(4), 659,
1994.
40. Dash, A. et al., Stimulation of nitric oxide
synthesis by Tinospora cordifolia in alveolar macrophages
and its implications in patients with TB., presented at
33rd Annual Conference of
the Indian Pharmacological Society, Gandhinagar, India,
December 28–30, 2000.
41. Nirjo, S.M. and Kofi Tsekpo, M.W., Effect of an
aqueous extract of Azardicta indica on the
immune response in mice, Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 66, 59, 1999.
42. Devasagayam, T.P.A. and Sainis, K.B., Immune system
and antioxidants, especially those
derived from herbal Indian medicinal plants, Indian J. Exp. Biol., 40, 639, 2002.
43. Dhuley, J.N., Effect of some Indian herb on
macrophage function in ochratoxin A treated mice,
J. Ethnopharmacol., 58, 15, 1997.
44. Thatte, U. and Dahanukar, S.A., Comparative study of
Immunomodulatory activity of Indian
Medicinal plants, lithium carbonate and glucan, Methods Find Exp. Clin. Pharmacol., 10, 639,
1988.
45. Khafagi, S.H. and Abdul Nabi, M.H., Antigranuloma
activity of Iraqui Withania somnifera, J.
Ethnopharmacol., 37, 113, 1992.
46. Singh, R.H. and Behere, P.B., Double blind clinical
studies on Ashwangandha capsules, unpublished
data, 1991.
47. Dahanukar, S.A., Kulkarni, R.A., and Rege, N.N.,
Pharmacology of medicinal plants and
natural products, Indian J. Pharmacol., 32, S81, 2000.
48. Shamaan, N.A. et al., Vitamin C and aloe vera
supplementation protects from chemical hepatocarcinogenesis
in rats, Nutrition, 14, 846, 1998.
49. Sabeh, F., Wright, T., and Norton, S.J., Purification
and characterization of a glutathione
peroxidase from the Aloe vera plant, Enzyme Protein,
47, 92, 1993.
50. t-Hart, L.A. et al., Effects of low molecular weight
constituents from aloe vera gel on
oxidative metabolism and cytotoxic and bactericidal
activities of human neutrophils, Int. J.
Immunopharmacol.,
12, 427, 1990.
51. Hu, K. et al. Antineoplastic agents. III. Steroidal
glycosides from Solanum nigrum, Planta
Medica,
65, 35, 1999.
52. Sultana, S., Perwaiz, S., Iqbal, M., and Athar, M.,
Crude extracts of hepatoprotective plants,
Solanum nigrum and Cichorium intybus inhibit free
radical-mediated DNA damage, J.
Ethnopharmacol.,
45, 189, 1995.
53. Roodenrys, S. et al., Chronic effects of Brahmi
(Bacopa monnieri) on human memory,
Neuropscyhopharmacology, 27(2), 279, 2002.
54. Sembulingam, K., Semibulingam, P., and Namasivayam,
A., Effect of Ocimum sanctum Linn.
on noise induced changes in plasma corticosterone level, Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol., 41, 139,
1997.
55. Banerjee, S., Prashar, R., Kumar, A., and Rao, A.R.,
Modulatory influence of alcoholic extract
of Ocimum leaves on carcinogenic-metabolising enzyme
activities and reduced glutathione
levels in mouse, Nutr. Cancer, 25, 205,
1996.
56. Jaiswal, A.K. and Bhattacharya, S.K., Indian J. Pharmacol., 24, 12, 1992.
57. Oureshi, S. et al. Fitoterapia,
65(2), 137, 1994.
58. Katiyar, C.K. et al., Immunomodulator products from
Ayurveda: current status and future
perspectives, in Immunomodulation, Upadhaya,
S.N., Ed., Narosa Publishing House, New
Delhi, India, 1995, p. 163.
59. Aggarwal, G.N., Radioprotective effect Chyawanprash
Awaleha in patients with cancers of
head and neck, presented at World Congress on
Biotechnological Developments in Medicinal
Substances from Plant and Murine Sources, Lucknow, 1995.
60. Lee, W.M., Drug induced hepatotoxicity, N. Engl. J. Med.,
333, 1118, 1995.
61. Decker, K., Eicosanoids: signals molecules of liver
cells, Semin. Liver Dis., 5, 175, 1985.
62. Shiratori, Y. et al., Modulation of hepatotoxicity by
macrophages in the liver, Hepatology, 8,
815, 1988.
63. Tsukamoto, H., Gaal, K., and French, S., Insights
into the pathogenesis of alcoholic liver
necrosis and fibrosis, status report, Hepatology,
12, 599, 1990.
64. Toth, C.A. and Thomas, P., Liver endocytosis and
Kupffer cells, Hepatology, 16, 255, 1992.
65. Dixon, J.M. et al., Factors affecting morbidity and
mortality after surgery for obstructive
jaundice: a review of 373 patients, Gut, 24,
845, 1983.
66. Greig, J.D. et al., Surgical morbidity and mortality
in one hundred and twenty nine patients
with obstructive jaundice, Br. J. Surg.,
75, 216, 1988.
67. Rege, N.N. et al., Immunomotherapy with Tinospora
cordifolia: a new lead in the management
of obstructive jaundice, Indian J. Gastroenterol., 12, 5, 1993.
68. Dudley, F.J., Fax, R.A., and Sherlock, S., Cellular
immunity and hepatitis associated Australia,
antigen liver disease, Lancet, 1, 723,
1972.
69. Greenberg, H.B. et al., Effect of human leucocyte
interferon on hepatitis B virus infection active
hepatitis, N. Engl. J. Med., 295, 517,
1976.
70. Palep, H.S., personal communication, 2001.
71. Ito, M. et al., Mechanism of inhibitory effect of
glycyrrhizin on replication of human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), Antiviral Res., 10, 289, 1988.
72. Hattori, I. et al., Preliminary evidence for inhibitory
effect of glycyrrhizin on HIV replication
in patients with AIDS, Antiviral Res.,
11, 255, 1989.
73. Nanba, H., Immunostimulant activity in-vivo and
anti-HIV activity in vitro of 3 branched b-
1-6 glucans extracted from maitake mushrooms (Grifola frondosa),
presented at 8th Int. Conf.
on AIDS, 1992.
74. Pulse, T.L. and Uhlig, E., A significant improvement
in a clinical pilot study utilizing nutritional
supplements, essential fatty acids and stabilized aloe
vera juice in 29 seropositive ARC
and AIDS patients, J. Adv. Med.,
3, 209, 1990.
75. Anon., Aloe vera may boost AZT, Med. Tribune,
8, 4, 1991.
76. Singer, J., A randomized placebo controlled trial of
oral acemennan as an adjunctive to antiretroviral
therapy in advanced HIV disease, presented in Int. Conf. AIDS,9,
Abstr. No. B28-
2153, 1993.
77. Ikegami, N. et al., Clinical evaluation of
glycyrrhizin in HIV infected patients with haemophilia
in Japan,
presented at 5th Int. Conf. on AIDS, Abstract No. WBP 298, June 1989.
78. Mori, K. et al., The present status in prophylaxis
and treatment of glycyrrhizin on HIV infected
patients with haemophilia in Japan, Rinsho Byhori,
37(11), 1200, 1989.
79. Udupa, A.L. et al., Wound healing profile of
septilin, Indian J. Physiol.
Pharmacol., 33, 1, 1989.
80. Gaunekar, L. et al., Clinical trial of septilin in
recurrent upper respiratory tract infection,
Antiseptic,
4, 190, 1988.
81. Sharma, S.B. and Ray, S., Effect of herbal
preparation on immune response of immunosupressed
mice, Indian
J. Physiol. Pharmacol., 3, 293,
1997.
82. Kulkarni, S.K., Mentat: multicomponent herbal
pschyotropic formulation, Drugs of
the Future,
21(6), 585, 1996.
83. Patel, R., Malnourished children and Liv-52, Indian Pract.,
7, 532, 1993.
84. Patney, N.L., A study of serum glycolytic enzyme and
serum B hepatitis in relation to Live
52 therapy, Med. Surg., 26(4), 9, 1986.
85. Singh, N. et al., An experimental evaluation of
anti-stress effects of geriforte (an ayurvedic
drug), Q. J.
Crude Drug Res., 3, 125, 1978.
86. Ghooi, A.M., Post surgical recovery with geriforte
following major surgical procedure, Probe,
22(2), 103, 1983.
87. Makhani, J.S., Evaluation of geriforte as a general
tonic, Curr. Med. Pract., 25(5), 211, 1981.
88. Manjunatha, S. et al., Effect of chyawanprash and
vitamin C on glucose tolerance and lipoprotein
profile, Indian
J. Physiol. Pharmacol., 45,
71, 2001.
Ayurvedic Bhasmas
Sheikh Raisuddin
9
6.1 Introduction
Accumulated toxicity data on the hazardous effects of
heavy metals have made health
scientists afraid of heavy metals. As a result, renewed
interest in the beneficial effects of
metals and minerals is often viewed with skepticism.
However, available literature from
all the ancient civilizations indicates that man has used
metals in disease treatment since
time immemorial. Ayurvedic literature is full of the use
of metals. Not only have Ayurveda
and other Indian systems of medicine used metals, but
their use is also amply described
in Chinese and Egyptian civilizations in 2500
B.C
.
1
Gold in medicine was also mentioned
by Roman physician Pliny and Greek philosopher
Dioscrides. Later, Arabic and Persian
physicians used gold in various forms in a number of
their prescriptions. Besides gold,
other metals that are extensively described in Indian and
other ancient systems of medicine
include silver, arsenic, copper, iron, lead, mercury, and
zinc. As far as Ayurveda is concerned,
metals have been used mainly as
bhasma
(ash).
Bhasma
literally means anything inorganic or organic burnt into
its ash. The process of
burning in Ayurvedic terminology is known as
marana
(calcination). The process of calcination
is also employed for preparation of
bhasmas
of coral, pearl, and shell. The wellknown
Ayurvedic texts,
Charaka Samhita
and
Susruta Samhita,
which are regarded as the
texts scripted by the forefathers of Ayurveda, include
ample description of the use of the
metals and minerals in the treatment of diseases. It is
also reflected in later texts that were
attempted to simplify the knowledge of
charaka
and
susruta
(e.g.,
Astanga Hridaya
,
Vagbhata
,
Mdhahva Nidan
,
Sharangadhara
Samhita
, and
Bhava Prakash
).
2,3
In this chapter, an attempt
has been made to describe various medicinal uses of
bhasmas
in general and
swrana bhasma
in particular.
The principles of Ayurvedic treatment are for the most
part the same as those of
allopathic treatment. They consist of removing the
injurious agent, soothing the injured
body and mind, and eradicating the cause. The difference
lies in the methods adopted
by the two systems. In Ayurveda, great importance is
given to the study of the various
stages of vitiation of the three
dosas
or humours of the body. When an imbalance occurs
among three
dosas
, they defile the normal functioning of the body, leading
to the manifestation
of disease.
4
Consciousness or intelligence (
sattva
), motion or action (
rajas
), and
the inertia that resist them (
tamas
) are the three omnipresent nonmaterial qualities (
gunas
)
that govern all material forms of basic matter. These
material and nonmaterial attributes
subsequently dictate the medicinal and healing properties
of plants and other healing
processes.
5
Ayurveda uses the concept of purification as a means to
eradicate disease rather than
to cure as perceived by modern medicine.
5
When treating acute and chronic infections,
Ayurveda does not aim to kill the microbes; restoration
of
dosa
balance and host immunity
(
rasayna
) ensures elimination of the infectious agent. Numerous
Ayurvedic medicinal
plants have shown strong chemotherapeutic and
immunomodifying effect in experimentally
induced infections.
6
6.2 History of Alchemy in Ayurveda
Ayurvedic literature places great emphasis on the
pharmaceutical process known as
samskara
.
Samskara
literally means a process. It is designed to enhance the
desirable qualities
of the drug being processed. The s
amskara
can be classified into two stages:
shodhana
(purification or detoxification of toxic substances) and
bhaishajya kalpana
(formulation of
a dosage form). A number of toxic herbal drugs like
Strychnos nuxvomica, Aconitum ferox,
Semicarpus anacardium, Commiphora mukul,
and almost all metal and mineral drugs are
purified and rendered safe for use, before their use as
drugs.
In Ayurveda,
rasayana
is a well-developed concept. Literally,
rasayana
means the augmentation
of
rasa,
the vital fluid produced by the digestion of food, which
sustains the
body through the strengthening of the
dhatus.
It is the
rasa
flowing in
the body that sustains
life; when it stops flowing, life comes to an end.
Rasayana
is the medium through which
the
rasa
is maintained, replenished, and augmented.
In modern terms, the study and practice of
rasayana
such as
rasvidya
is referred to as
alchemy. It is generally believed that alchemy appeared
in India in the fifth or sixth century
A
.
D
. and greatly prospered for the next seven or eight
centuries under royal patronage.
7
Hindu
tantriks
developed the mercury-based alchemy in India and related
it to the
male–female symbolism (
Shiva
and
Parvati
). Mercury was regarded as male principle
(
Shiva
) and sulfur as the female principle (
Parvati
).
The laboratory of an Indian alchemist was known as
rasashala
, a place where the alchemists
carried out their various operations under the benign
influence of the
rasalinga
, a
symbol of esoteric potentiality.
Rasalinga
was either a gold amalgam, prepared by triturating
gold and mercury, or a compound of mercury and sulfur
shaped into a
linga
. The
text
Rasaratna Samuchchaya
describes how and where a
rasashala
can be established. It also
describes important apparatuses that should be available
in a
rasashala
. It is amply clear
that knowledge of science of metals and its medicinal
usage was well developed in India.
Alchemical or related texts can also be found in other
Indian languages like Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Bengali, Marathi, Oriya, and
Gujarati. There are more than
200 works in Tamil on the Siddha system of medicine.
Plants occupied an important place
in the practices of Indian alchemists. More than 200
names of plants are mentioned in
different texts of
Rasashastra
. The Indian alchemists (
rasavadins
) treated the minerals and
metals with one medicinal plant or the other to render
them the desirable chemical
properties. Even mercury considered to be divine was
subjected to this process.
7
According
to the
Matrakabhedatantram,
“mercury cannot be reduced to bhasma without the help of
one or more of medicinal plants.”
The plants used were referred to as
divyausadhi
(divine medicinal plants). Mercury is
considered to be the king of
rasas
and it is referred to by various names like
parada
,
rasa
,
suta
,
maharasa
,
rasendra
,
svarnakaraka
,
sarvadhatupati,
etc. There are detailed descriptions of
a number of compositions with mercury as the chief
ingredient. In Indian alchemical texts,
the chemical substances have been divided into five main
categories:
maharasa
,
uparasa
,
dhatu
,
ratna
, and poisons (
visha
). There are eight
maharasas
, eight
uparasas
, and seven
dhatus
,
including three alloys: brass (
pittala
), bell metal (
kamsya
), and a mixture of five metals
(
vartka
). The precious gems were placed under the catagory of
ratnas
. Various plant products
and minerals having toxic properties are included in the
category of poisons.
6.3 Ayurvedic Pharmaceuticals
Ayurvedic medicines are categorized according to whether
they promote general health
and longevity, enhance sexual vigor, or fight disease.
The first category is known as
rasayana, the
second is called vajikarana, and the third is aushadhis. These
categories are
not mutually exclusive because some of the aushadhis may
act as rasayanas and vice versa.
On the basis of their origin, Ayurvedic medicines are
also classified into three groups: (1)
kastha ausadhis (herbal
preparations), (2) rasa
ausadhis (metallic preparations [e.g., bhasmas,
sindoora]), and
(3) jangama ausadhis (animal preparation — prepared from animal products).
Depending on their form, method of preparation,
ingredients, and pharmacological properties,
Ayurvedic medicines are grouped as Swaras, Kalka, Hima, Phanita, Kashaya, Asavas,
Aristas, Awalehas, Churnas, Vati, Gutika, Ghrita, Taila Guggulu, Bhasmas, Pishti, Parpati,
Rasayoga, Sindoora, Lepa, and Anjana.4,8–11
6.4 Metal and Mineral Drugs of Ayurveda
Metals like gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron,
sand (balu from river banks), lime and
minerals like red arsenic (manassila), gems (manayah), salts
(lavana), and red chalk (gairika)
are indicated as drugs pertaining to earth (bhauma). In
Indian metallurgy, the term loha is
often used for metals like gold and silver and minerals
containing metals (ores) are called
dhatus. There
are seven dhatus: suvarna (gold), rajata (silver), tamra (copper), trapa (tin),
tiksna or ayas (iron), sisa or naga (lead),
and vaikrintaka.11 Salts or lavanas are mentioned
under the parthive
substances. According to Charaka, there are
five salts: sauvarcala,
saindhava, vida, audbhida, and
samudra. Mani and ratna, being synonyms for each other,
stand for the modern term “jewel” or “gem.”
Mercury is considered eighth metal in rasa shastra.
It earned the supreme position among
the minerals and metals. The learned Acharyas also
studied the relation and effects
between these metals and planets over the human body and
called them grahanga
navaloha.11
Metals are grouped as shuddha, sishra, and pooti
loha.11
The calcined forms of metals that are termed bhasmas in
Ayurveda are referred to as
parpams and kushta in Siddha
and Unani-tibb, respectively. Kushta literally means to kill;
in medical terms it is detoxifying the toxic properties
of a toxic metal.12
Although bhasmas are regarded as chief metal-containing
pharmaceuticals of Ayurveda,
there are several other preparations prepared from
metals. Some of these pharmaceuticals
are described below.
6.4.1 Bhasma
Animal derivatives such as horns, shells, feathers, and
metallic and nonmetallic minerals
are normally administered as bhasmas. A bhasma means an
ash obtained though incineration.
The starter material undergoes an elaborate process of
purification (shodhana). This
process is followed by the reaction phase, which involves
incorporation of some other
mineral and herbal extracts. Then the material in pellet
form is incinerated in a furnace.
The end product is expected to be a nontoxic material.
Examples include swarn bhasma,
shankha bhasma, and
tamra bhasma.
6.4.2 Parpati
These are specialized mercury preparations. The name is
derived from the method by
which flakes of the compound are obtained. A black
sulfide of mercury is obtained by
mixing purified mercury and sulfur. Other drugs as per
the formula are added to this and
mixed well by triturating them in mortar and pestle. A
shallow pit is made in fresh cow
dung and a banana leaf is placed. The melted compound is
poured onto the leaf and is
covered with another leaf. Fresh dung is spread on it
evenly. When it is cooled the flakes
are removed and powdered.
6.4.3 Rasayoga
Rasayogas are
compound formulations containing mercury and sulfur (in the form of kajjali)
with other metals or minerals. Most of the ingredients
contained in a rasayoga are added
in the form of bhasmas. The final form may be either
a pill or powder.
6.4.4 Sindoora
Sindoora are
prepared by the elaborate process of sublimation. This procedure is termed
kupipakwa vidhi and
the sublimed mineral available on the neck of the sublimation glass
flask is called sindoora. Sindoora preparations
are considered to be more potent than bhasma
preparations.
6.5 Types of Bhasma
Attempts have been made to classify various bhasmas. They
have been classified on the
basis of color and appearance. A more scientific way of
classification is on the basis of
dominant metal and mineral group.13 According to this
classification, bhasmas have been
grouped as rajata group (silver), tamra group
(copper), loha group (iron), pravala group
(shells), etc. Often two metals and a metal with mineral
are the ingredients of bhasmas.
For example, Trivanga Bhasma contains
lead, tin, and zinc. The metals yield three different
types of bhasma corresponding to the nature of the ingredient used. They
appear as best,
medium, and inferior quality. Mercury is always used as a
basic substance in the process
of marana.11
6.6 Preparation of Bhasma: General
Procedures
The name bhasma is generally applied to all metallic and nonmetallic
substances that are
subjected to the process of incineration and reduction to
ash. Here it is applied to the
metals, minerals, and animal products that are, by
special processes, calcinated in closed
crucibles in pits with cow dung cakes (puttam). Bhasmas are
generally white, pale, or red.
The color of the preparation primarily depends on the
parent material.14 The following
pharmaceutical steps are used to prepare bhasmas.
6.6.1 Shodhana
In Ayurveda, purification is called shodhana. Shodhana is the
process through which the
external and internal impurities of metals and minerals
are removed. Chemical purification
is different from medicinal purification. In chemical
purification it is only elimination of
foreign matters, whereas in medicinal purification the
objects are involved in the
1. Elimination of harmful matter from the drug
2. Modification of undesirable physical properties of the
drug
3. Conversion of some of the characteristics of the drug
to different stages
4. Enhancement of the therapeutic action
There are two kinds of shodhana. The
first type, samanya shodhana (general purification),
is applicable to the large number of metals or minerals
as heating the thin sheets of metals
and immersing them in oil (taila),
extract (takra), cow urine (gomutra), and other materials.
The second type, Vishesha shodhana (special
purification), is applicable only to specific
metals, minerals, and in certain preparations. Vishesha shodhana includes bhavana, svedana,
nirvapana, and
mardana.14
After shodhana
bhasmas become soft and malleable for
further processing and their
metallic property is improved. The main apparatus
required includes dola yantra, khalva
yantra, and musha yantra.11
Various procedures employed for shodhana
are described below.
When mineral drugs are heated in a furnace in the
presence of dravaka, substances
(liqueficants) like alkali and acid release their satva. This is
the purest form of any herbal
or mineral drug.11 All the metals except mercury are
found in nature in solid state, and
they all fuse under high temperature to attain a liquid
state. When the temperature lowers
they again return to their natural physical form (i.e.,
in the solid state). But these fused
metals in the presence of some liqueficants do not return
into their natural solid state even
when the temperature lowers (i.e., the metals remain in
liquid form). This method of
obtaining metals in liquid form is called dravana and the
obtained liquid metal is called
druti. Druti holds
superior character with respect to efficacy, toxicity, and increased shelf
life than its native metals and retains its fluidity for
a longer time with proper preservation.
11
Shuddhavarta is
a particular stage of heating when the fire becomes strong enough to
yield the pure substance (metal, satva). At
this time the flame becomes golden yellow.11
6.6.2 Marana
Marana is
essentially the burning process or calcination. The purified metal is placed
into
a mortar and, with a pestle, ground with the juice of
specified plants or kashayas, mercury
(in metallic state), or a compound of mercury such as
mercury perchloride (sauviram),
mercuric subchloride (ras karpur),
cinnabar (ingalekam), or an amalgam of sulfur and
mercury (kajjali) for a specified period of time. The metal that is
intended for marana is
known as a primary metal (pradhan dhatu);
the other metal, which is taken in small
proportions for the marana of the
primary metal, is known as secondary metal (sahaya
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
Ayurvedic Bhasmas 89
dhatu).14
Small cakes (chakrikas) are made with the ground paste of the minerals and
dried
under the sun. The size and thickness of the cakes depend
on the heaviness of the drug
and size. The heavier the drug, the thinner the cakes.
These cakes are dried well under
the shade and placed in one single layer in a mud tray (sharava) and
closed with another
such tray; the clay-smeared cloth keeps both the lid and
the container in apposition. The
clay-smeared cloth is applied seven times and dried to
seal the crucibles properly. A pit
is dug in an open space and half the pit is filled with
dried cow dung cakes. The crucibles
are placed in the half-filled pit and are covered with
cow dung cakes up to the brim of
the pit. Fire is then ignited on all four sides and in
the middle of the pit. When the burning
is over, the contents are allowed to cool completely on
their own.
Marana differs
with the nature of the substance to be calcinated. For example, organic
substances such as herbs are burnt in open air, whereas
inorganic substances such as
metals like rajata (silver) are burnt in closed
containers. In either case the end product is
a bhasma of substance taken for marana. For
example, the end product in the case of silver
(rajata) is called as rajata bhasma. Marana of
inorganic substances is called puta and the
process of marana of herbs in closed freshly
made containers is known as puta
paka.13
Bhasmas obtained
by marana from primary metals together with herbs (mulika) are
called
mulika marita bhasma; the ones where the second metal is taken for the marana of primary
metal are called parada (mercury) marita, or talaka (arsenic
trisulphide) marita bhasma,
depending upon the second metal used for the purpose.
During the process the second
metal would finally volatilize itself at the temperature
of marana, leaving behind the bhasma
of primary metal.
Very few metals like copper or iron still bear some
impurities after the marana. In such
cases the whole process is repeated until a purified and
therapeutically safer product for
internal use is obtained. In addition, a process called amritikarana is
done to make these
metals safer.11 The process consists of heating the
product from the marana procedure in
the presence of some herbal materials to improve safety
and therapeutic effect. In this
process the required amounts of triphala decoction,
cow’s ghritika, and dhatu
bhasma are
placed in an iron pot. Mild heat is applied until the
medicinal fluids are completely
evaporated. Bhasma that remains at the end of
this process is safer and possesses higher
therapeutic efficacy.
6.6.3 Quality Control of Bhasma
Traditionally, the end points of incineration of a metal
and its conversion to a bhasma state
are evaluated based on the following criteria:
1. There should be no chandrika or
metallic lusture (nischandrika).
2. When a bhasma is spread between the index finger and thumb, it should
be so
fine as to get easily into the lines and crevices of the
fingers (rekhapurita).
3. When a small quantity is spread on cold and still
water, it should float on the
surface (varitara).
4. The bhasma should not revert to the original state (apurnabhava).14
A technique known as the phased spot test has been
developed by the investigators of
Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha
(CCRAS) of India to identify bhasmas
and sindooras. This technique is very effective and accurate in
identifying genuine quality
of bhasmas. Nearly 30 bhasmas and sinduroos have
been studied based on this technique,
and suitable criteria have been established for their
identification and quality assessment.13
The identification of gold in makardhwaja,
a powdered mercury preparation, by spot test
is simple and spectacular. This effort is one big step
toward standardizing Ayurvedic
preparations.
6.6.4 Preparation of Gold and Iron Bhasmas and Their
Chemical Characteristics
Some of the common bhasmas and their
main ingredients used in Ayuarveda are listed
Table 6.1. Methods to prepare two important Ayurvedic bhasmas — gold
and iron — and
their characteristics are presented here as examples.
6.6.4.1 Gold (Swarna) Bhasma
The general preparation of swarna bhasma involves
the three processes of shodhana, dravana,
and marana. The leaves of gold are heated over fire and dipped in sesa (Sesamum indicum)
oil when they are red hot, and the process is continued
seven times separately. The soft
leaves are processed in the same manner with buttermilk,
cow’s urine, and the decoction
of kulatha (Dolichos
biflorus), kanji (sour
gruel processed from rice [Oryza
sativa]), and radish
(Raphanus
sativus). Finally, the leaves are
dried by heat. Care must be taken that the weight
of the gold remains unchanged. A measurement of 15 g each
of arsenic disulfide, realger
(As2S2), and red lead (Pb3O4) is taken in an earthenware
container and mixed thoroughly
with 30 ml of latex of Calotropis gigentea. The mixture is triturated and the paste thus
obtained is dried in sunlight. The process of triturating
and drying in sunlight is repeated
7 to 14 times using fresh aliquots of latex, and the
final product (~200 g) is obtained. An
aliquot of the above product (~10 g) is poured into
liquefied metallic gold (10 g) in a
closed earthen pot and the mixture is heated above 1000∞C. The content is gently stirred
and the heating is continued until the mass becomes
disintegrated and a homogenous
red-brown powder is formed.15
All the major Ayurvedic pharmaceutical manufacturers,
including Dabur and Zhandu,
make swarna
bhasma. The ingredients of swarna bhasma made
by Kalptaru Ayurvedic Works,
Kolkata, has been reported.16 The gold content was
reported to be 96.76%. It also contained
trace quantities of copper and iron. Recently,
physicochemical characteristics which
TABLE 6.1
Important Bhasmas and Their Main Ingredients
No. Bhasma
Main Ingredient
1 Abhrak
bhasma Mica
2 Hathidanta
bhasma Charcoal of elephant tusk
3 Jasad
bhasma Zinc oxide
4 Loha
bhasma Iron oxide
5 Mandur
bhasma Iron oxide
6 Mayurapicha
bhasma Ashes of peacock feather
7 Mukta
bhasma Oxide of pearl
8 Naga
bhasma Lead
9 Parada
bhasma Mercury compound
10 Pravala
bhasma Oxide of coral
11 Rajata
bhasma Silver oxide
12 Sankha
bhasma Oxide of conch shell
13 Mukta
sukti bhasma Oxide of pearl, oyster shell
14 Talaka
bhasma Arsenic sulphide
15 Tamra
bhasma Cupric oxide
16 Vanga
bhasma Tin compounds
17 Varatika
bhasma Oxide of cowrie shell
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
Ayurvedic Bhasmas 91
resulted in the laboratory following the procedure as per
Rasaratna Samuchchya of swarna
bhasma have been
reported.15 An atomic absorption spectrometer (ASS) was employed to
study the contents of gold and other metals. The gold
content was found to be 20.3%.
Some other important metals that were present included
iron, magnesium, strontium,
copper, arsenic, lead, nickel, zinc, and cobalt.
The organoleptic characteristics of swarna bhasma are
that it is dark brown, has a faint
smell, fine touch, and is tasteless. The standard swarna bhasma should
contain the following:
1. Free sulfur — no less than 1.43% w/w and no more than
6.39% w/w
2. Sulfur — no more than 3.33% w/w
3. Calcium as Ca — no more than 1.625% w/w
4. Sodium as Na — no more than 0.922% w/w
5. Potassium as K — no more than 0.370% w/w
6. Sulfate — no more than 3.00% w/w
7. Copper — no more than 17.2% w/w
8. Iron oxide (ferric) — no more than 85.0% w/w
9. Iron oxide (ferrous) — no more than 5.7% w/w
10. Iron — no less than 36.0% w/w and not more than
51.96% w/w
11. Phosphate as PO4 — no more than 1.101% w/w
12. Silica — no more than 3.8% w/w
13. Acid insolubles — no more than 11.93% w/w
Swarna bhasma contains
an ash value between 92.10 and no more than 98.20% w/w and
an acid-insoluble ash value between 21.20 and 31.18% w/w.
The recommended dose is
100 to 250 mg.14
6.6.4.2 Iron (Loha) Bhasma
Iron bhasma preparation uses three basic processes: shodhana, dravana, and marana. Iron is
purified by sinking the red-hot leaflet into the fresh trifala decoction
(nishechan) repeatedly
nine times. A freshly prepared decoction is used every
time. Coarse pieces of sulfur are
taken in khalva
yantra and some amount of dewadali swaras are
added for bhavana (i.e., the
sulfur pieces remain in good contact within this
medicinal fluid). It is rubbed thoroughly
and the process is repeated for at least 7 days. When
sulfur powder obtained at the end
is sprinkled (pravap) over the fused iron, it is
kept in liquidity.
Iron bhasma should always be prepared with mercury; otherwise, it is
not absorbed
properly in the intestine. Additional processes are used
to obtain the best quality iron
bhasma. This
includes loha maraka gana, amritkarana, and nirutthikarana. In the loha
maraka,
fresh lemon juice is prepared and a specific amount of hingula powder is
added. Then
these ingredients are mixed thoroughly. Afterward, the
process of repeated dipping (nirvapana)
red-hot iron leaflets in the medicinal fluid is applied
to obtain loha bhasma. In the
amritkarana process,
equal amounts of loha bhasma and ghrita are placed in an iron pan and
mixed properly under mild heat until the fat disappears.
This compound now bears a
yagavahi character.
Finally, the properly prepared bhasma and trifala decoction (bhavana
drava) is
exposed to heat by the sun (suryaputa) or by the process of burning the herbs in
closed freshly made mud containers (putapaka). At the
end of this procedure, loha
bhasma
becomes the end product (niruttha and varttara) of
filtration and separation procedures
(nirutthikarana).11
The organoleptic characteristics of loha bhasma are
that it is dark brown, has a faint smell,
fine touch, and no taste. Iron as Fe2O3 is no more than
96.575% w/w, and iron as Fe is no
more than 75% w/w present in this bhasma. Loha bhasma contains
an ash value not less
than 96.8% w/w and not more than 99.7% w/w. Its
acid-insoluble ash is between 0.101
and 2.803% w/w. Its dose is 100 to 250 mg.14
6.7 Therapeutic Indications and Scientific Investigations
on Bhasmas
6.7.1 Swarna
Bhasma
6.7.1.1 Indications
longevity, and combat the aging process in humans. Around
the eighth century A.D., gold
was used in the form of bhasma after
proper purification and incineration as described in
the Ayurvedic
Pharmacopoeia. Gold preparations are
recommended to promote longevity,
combat aging, and treat impotency. They are also used as
a tonic, hepatotonic, cardiostimulant,
nervine tonic, detoxifier, and an anti-infective drug. Swarna bhasma is
also used in
the treatment of diseases such as anemia, dyspepsia,
epilepsy, neurasthenia, loss of memory,
bronchitis, asthma, tuberculosis, leucoderma, and
rheumatoid arthritis.9,15 The recommended
dose is 100 to 250 mg.14 In modern medicine, gold is
primarily used in rheumatoid
most extensively studied.
6.7.1.2 Animal Studies
6.7.1.2.1 Analgesic Activity
Analgesic activity of swarna bhasma was
reported in one study involving mice.17 A Unani
calcined gold preparation, kushta tilan kalan (KTK), was also used in this study along with
the widely used gold drug auranofin. Swarna bhasma at
12 to 50 mg/kg body weight by
oral route showed analgesic activity against chemical,
thermal, electrical, and mechanical
stimuli. Whereas the analgesic effect of swarna bhasma could
be blocked by the treatment
of nolaxone, such antagonism was not possible in the case
of auranofin. The study suggests
involvement of opiodergenic mechanism in the observed
analgesic activity of swarna
bhasma.
6.7.1.2.2 Immune Response
Specific and nonspecific immune responses were modified
in a positive manner in swarna
bhasma-treated
mice.18,19 The doses were in the range of 12.5 to 50 mg/kg body weight.
Swarna bhasma had
a stimulatory effect on peritoneal macrophages, which may be helpful
to fight against infections. It was suggested that
macrophages achieved stimulation possibly
due to presentation of the metal to cells in fine
emulsified form.
6.7.1.2.3 Antioxidant Activity
The antioxidant and restorative effects of swarna bhasma in
rats have recently been demonstrated.
Om Tat Sat
(Continued...)
(My
humble salutations to H H Maharshi ji, Brahmasri
Sreeman Lakshmi Chandra Mishra ji and other eminent medical scholars and
doctors for the collection)
0 comments:
Post a Comment